Ancient Egypt

The term “Egypt” (Aigyptos) comes from the Phoenician “Hikupta” – a distorted Egyptian “Hatkapta” (“Temple of Ptah”), the name of the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. The Egyptians themselves called their country “Kemet” (“Black Land”) according to the color of the black earth soil in the Nile Valley, as opposed to “Red Land” (desert).

Geography And Natural Conditions.

Egypt is located in the northeast of the African continent and is connected with the Western Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. In ancient times, Egypt was understood as a valley formed by the lower course of the Nile. From the north, Egypt was limited to the Mediterranean Sea, from the west – the Libyan Plateau, from the east – the Arabian (Eastern) Highlands, from the south – the 1st Nile Rapid. It split into Upper (the Nile Valley proper) and Lower Egypt (the Delta region, the wide mouth of the Nile from several branches, its shape resembling a triangle).

The Nile Valley was a long and narrow oasis (from 1 to 20 km wide), locked on both sides by two mountain ranges and inaccessible in the south (at the first threshold, the mountain ranges directly approached the river); it was open only in the northeast. This led to the relative isolation and independence of the ancient Egyptian civilization.

The Nile (“Big River”), the longest river in the world (6671 km), is formed from the confluence of the White Nile, which flows from the lakes of Tropical Africa, and the Blue Nile, which originates in Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands; in its course, it passes six rapids and flows into the Mediterranean Sea with a branched mouth. The annual floods, which begin in mid-July and peak in the fall, leave a layer of fertile silt on the Nile shores after spring retreat, which creates extremely favorable conditions for agriculture. The Nile is the main transport artery connecting all parts of the valley with each other and with the Mediterranean Sea. In an almost complete absence of rain (with the exception of the Delta), it is the only source of moisture. Not surprisingly, the Egyptians deified their river and called Egypt “the gift of the Nile.”

The efficient use of the benefits of the Nile was impossible without the collective and organized labor of everyone living in its valley. The unevenness of spills (either an insufficient rise of water, or a flood, which equally threatened the harvest) caused the need for a unified system of regulation and distribution of water (its diversion to remote and elevated places, the construction of dams, the arrangement of storage tanks, drainage of swamps using canals). The “Big River”, which required the combined efforts of the entire population of the Nile Valley, turned out to be the main factor in the creation of a common Egyptian statehood.

The desert became another important natural factor in the development of the ancient Egyptian civilization. On the one hand, it contributed to its isolation, preventing contacts with neighboring peoples, and carried it a constant threat, sending hostile tribes and sandstorms; The Egyptians had to fight it all the time, creating barriers to the advancing sands and recapturing the territories necessary for agriculture from it. On the other hand, a column of warm air forming over the desert provided for most of the year access to the valley of the northern wind from the Mediterranean Sea, which enriched it with salts that nourished plants and maintained a humid and temperate climate; only in April and May, the drying southeastern wind of the Khamsin fell on Egypt.

The flora and fauna of Egypt was quite diverse. Barley and emmer (a type of wheat), flax and sesame were cultivated, and cucumbers, leeks and garlic were cultivated from vegetables. Lotus and papyrus were collected in the pools. In the valley grew a date and coconut palm, a pomegranate tree, a fig tree, an acacia tree, a sycamore tree, and in the Delta, a vine and fruit trees. However, there was practically no construction timber; it was delivered from Phenicia, which is rich in cedar and oak.

The waters of the Nile abounded in fish, its thickets – in game. Wild fauna was represented by lions, cheetahs, panthers, jackals, gazelles, foxes, giraffes, hippos, crocodiles, rhinos; some species have disappeared as a result of intense hunting and climate change. Domestic animals included bulls, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, dogs, and later mules and horses; from poultry – ducks and geese, later chickens. Bees were raised.

Egypt was not rich in minerals. The main asset of its subsoil was a variety of rocks (granite, basalt, diarite, alabaster, limestone, sandstone). Many metals were absent, which led to the expansion of the Egyptians in the southern and northeastern directions: in the Sinai Peninsula they were attracted by copper mines, in Nubia and in the Arabian Highlands – by deposits of gold and silver. Egypt and neighboring regions did not have reserves of tin and iron, which delayed the onset of the Bronze and Iron Age in the Nile Valley.

Ethnic composition.

The Egyptian ethnos arose as a result of the mixing of a number of Semitic and Hamitic tribes. This anthropological type was distinguished by a strong physique, medium height, dark skin, cheeky face with bulging “Negro” lips, an elongated skull and black smooth hair.

History.

The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into the following epochs: The first (beginning of the 4th millennium BC) and the Second (mid-4th millennium BC) pre-dynastic periods; Early Kingdom (32-29 centuries BC); The Ancient Kingdom (28–23 centuries BC); The first transitional period (23–21 centuries BC); Middle Kingdom (21-18 centuries BC); Second transitional period (late 18th – mid-16th centuries BC); New Kingdom (16-11 centuries BC); Third transitional period (11-10 centuries BC); Later kingdom (9-7 centuries BC); the era of Persian domination (late 6th – 4th centuries BC).

The Nile Valley was developed by man in the Paleolithic era. The sites of primitive hunters and gatherers were found in Upper Egypt and in the Fayum oasis. In the Upper Paleolithic era (20–10 thousand BC), they settled throughout the valley. At that time the climate was cooler and more humid than it is today; vast areas around the Nile, which had a number of tributaries, were covered with grass and bushes. They were inhabited by a large number of wild animals, hunting for which remained the main occupation of local tribes leading a nomadic lifestyle. However, the end of the Ice Age and significant warming led to the desertification of this area, which ended by the beginning of the Neolithic (New Stone Age). The surrounding tribes, mostly of Hamitic origin, were forced to gradually retreat to a narrowing strip of habitable land along the banks of the Nile. Population growth, coupled with dwindling animal and plant resources, has forced hunters and gatherers to seek new ways to obtain food. The presence of fertile soil, wild grasses and tameable animals contributed to the emergence, beginning from the end of the 6th millennium BC, agriculture and cattle breeding.

Neolithic tribes 5 thousand BC (the Merimd and El Omar cultures in the Delta, the Fayum and Tasi cultures in Upper Egypt) do not yet know copper and continue to use stone tools. They raise small (sometimes even cattle) cattle and are engaged in primitive agriculture, making the first attempts to irrigate the soil; nevertheless, hunting and fishing continue to be their main source of livelihood.

At the end of the 5th – beginning of the 4th millennium BC. the Nile Valley is entering the Eneolithic (Copper Age). Copper objects (beads, piercings) are found already among the Badarians who lived in Upper Egypt at the end of the 5th millennium BC. The Badarians achieve great success in cattle breeding, moving on to breeding cattle. The role of agriculture is growing, and small irrigation canals appear. However, hunting and fishing remain important.

First Predynastic Period.

First Predynastic Period (First Half of 4 Thousand BC).

At the beginning of the 4th millennium BC. a sedentary agricultural way of life becomes dominant among the tribes of the Nile Valley (Amrat and Nigad cultures). There is a significant increase in population – the number and size of settlements are increasing, they are surrounded by walls. The sphere of using copper is expanding (not only for jewelry, but also for tools); items made of gold appear. Social differentiation is still only outlined.

Second Predynastic Period.

Second Predynastic (Gerzei) Period (35-33 centuries BC).

In the middle of the 4th millennium BC. Egypt is entering the Advanced Copper Age. This era is also called Gerzee (from the village of Gerze, near which an Eneolithic settlement was excavated). The Herzeans finally move to a settled way of life; the leading role in their life is played by cattle breeding and agriculture, the progress of which leads to the emergence of property inequality; livestock is considered the main wealth. The agricultural community is transformed from a clan into a neighboring one; social differentiation takes place in it. A layer of “noble” is distinguished, formed from the military elite (the defenders of the tribe are the leader, the most powerful warriors), the property elite (the wealthiest and most enterprising members of the community), and clergymen. This stratum dominates over the bulk of farmers and pastoralists. The prisoners captured as a result of constant military clashes still form a small category of slaves.

The urgent need to maintain and expand local irrigation systems has facilitated the consolidation of communities into larger formations. Regardless of which way it happened (violent or peaceful), one of the communities inevitably occupied a dominant position in relation to the rest; it was her settlement that turned into the administrative, military and religious center of the association, and her elite usurped the leading political, military and priestly functions. Gradually, the process of unification led to the emergence by the end of the 34th century. BC large territorial formations – nomes, which turned out to be the first proto-states of Ancient Egypt. In the 33 century. BC. the growing need for a common Egyptian irrigation system led to a trend towards political unification of the entire Nile Valley. The result of the struggle of the nomes for political dominance was the emergence of two states – the Lower Egyptian with the capital in Butoh and the Upper Egyptian with the capital in Nehena (Hierakonpolis). The leading cult in Lower Egypt was the cult of Set, and in Upper Egypt, the cult of Horus.

Early Kingdom.

Early Kingdom (32-29 centuries BC): “Zero”, I and II Dynasties.

The Lower Egyptian and Upper Egyptian kingdoms fought constant wars for control over the border territories. The military confrontation ended with the defeat of Lower Egypt by the Upper Egyptian king Narmer approx. 3200 BC and the creation of a unified Egyptian state. Narmer combined the red crown of Lower and the white crown of Upper Egypt. Dynasty Narmer (“Zero”) became the first ruling general Egyptian dynasty. It was replaced by the I dynasty, which originated from the Upper Egyptian city of Tin (near Abydos). Its founder Mina (Gore-Fighter), in order to unite the state, founded a new capital on the border of Lower and Upper Egypt – Memphis. The reign of the First Dynasty became a period of relative intrastate stability, which allowed one of its representatives, Jerus, to carry out a number of successful campaigns outside Egypt. Gradually, control was established over the Sinai Peninsula. However, during the reign of the II dynasty, the separatist movement in Lower Egypt intensified. In an effort to suppress it, the kings resorted to both repressions (bloody suppression of the uprising in the Delta by King Hasekhemui) and a policy of reconciliation (some kings defiantly accept the name of Set or both Set and Horus). Apparently, by the end of the reign of the II dynasty, Lower Egypt was finally conquered.

Ancient Kingdom.

Ancient Kingdom (28–13 centuries BC): III – VI Dynasties.

Formed by the 28th century. BC. the social system was a clear pyramid, at the top of which was the king, who possessed absolute power (legislative, executive, judicial) and was considered a god (the incarnation of the god Horus, the son of the god Ra). He was the autocratic ruler of Egypt, the supreme owner of the land and everything that lived and grew on it. The material basis of monarchical power was the vast tsarist economy (“the king’s house”), which consisted of huge estates scattered throughout the Nile valley. His very name was sacred and it was forbidden to pronounce it; therefore he was called Pharaoh – “per-o” (“great house”).

Below the pharaoh was the aristocracy, whose duty was to serve the god pharaoh (courtiers), help him rule Egypt and fulfill his will (officials), honor him and his celestial relatives (priests). As a rule, representatives of the nobility simultaneously performed all three functions. Belonging to the upper class was hereditary. In the composition of the nobility, two main groups stand out – the capital dignitary aristocracy and the rulers of the nomes (nomarchs), between which there was no clear line: often nomarchs held positions in the central apparatus, and high officials ruled separate regions. The nobles had large land holdings, which consisted of a “personal house” (land and property, inherited or acquired), and conditional holding provided by the pharaoh for the duration of their performance of certain positions. As priests, they gained control of vast temple holdings. The estates belonging to nobles and temples were subject to taxes and duties; on rare occasions, the pharaoh released a dignitary or a temple from them for special merit.

The lower stratum consisted of communal peasants (nisutiu, hentiushe) and estate workers (meret, hemuu). Nisutiu sat on the ground, possessed tools and personal property, paid taxes and bore duties for the benefit of the state. Hemuu performed various jobs in the royal, temple or private households, using tools and raw materials from the master’s yard and receiving clothing and food for their labor; lived in “villages” at the estates. Hemuu were organized into workers’ detachments, the leaders of which were considered civil servants. Workers’ detachments of temples and private farms were also used to carry out government duties (building pyramids, irrigation facilities, roads, transporting goods, etc.). The position of the Hemuu differed little from the position of the lowest social category of Egyptian society – slaves (bak), which consisted mainly of prisoners of war (the state had a negative attitude to the enslavement of the indigenous Egyptians). During this period, they did not yet form a significant social stratum, and their role in the economy and society was modest.

The main function of the ancient Egyptian state was to mobilize the forces of society to fulfill important economic, political or religious tasks (maintaining the irrigation system, organizing military campaigns, building religious buildings), which led to the emergence of a system of careful accounting and distribution of all labor and material resources. It was under the jurisdiction of a large and ramified state apparatus that carried out its activities at three levels – central, nominal and local. The central administration was headed by a supreme dignitary (chati) who directed the activities of the executive and judicial institutions; at the same time, the army was withdrawn from its sphere of competence. Various departments were subordinate to him: overseeing the irrigation system, livestock, artisans, organizing public works and collecting taxes, “six great courtyards” (courts). Each of them was divided into two divisions – for Upper and for Lower Egypt. A special military department (“house of arms”) was responsible, if necessary, for the convening of the general Egyptian militia and for the system of fortresses scattered throughout the country; the army consisted of detachments of Egyptian infantrymen, armed with bows and arrows, and auxiliary mercenary detachments (“peaceful Nubians”). The nominee administration, headed by nomarchs, copied the structure of the central one. The councils (dzhajat, kenbet) that governed the community settlements were subordinate to her; they oversaw local irrigation systems and judges.

During the reign of the III dynasty (28th century BC), founded by Pharaoh Djoser, there is an increase in state centralization and strengthening of the royal power: a single irrigation system is created, the bureaucratic apparatus is expanded, an active foreign policy is carried out, a special cult of the pharaoh-god is established (giant tombs – pyramids). The pharaohs seek to rise above the aristocracy and make it completely dependent. First of all, they are trying to establish control over the nominee administration by eliminating the hereditary power of the nomarchs. However, this can only be achieved by the 4th dynasty (28-27 centuries BC), during which Pharaonic absolutism reaches its peak, especially during the reign of Sneferu, Khufu (Cheops), Djedefre, Khafre (Khafren) and Menkaure (Mikerin): the practice of appointing nomarchs by the central government and their constant movement from nome to nom is approved, leading positions in the central apparatus are in the hands of representatives of the reigning house. The cult of the pharaoh becomes exceptional; huge labor and material resources are mobilized for the construction of giant pyramids. Aggressiveness is growing in foreign policy; its three main directions are finally determined – southern (Nubia), northeastern (Sinai, Palestine) and western (Libya). As a rule, the campaigns are of a predatory nature (capture of prisoners and minerals); at the same time, Egypt seeks to establish systematic control over a number of territories for their economic development (Sinai, Nubia).

The construction of the pyramids and foreign policy expansion lead to an overextension of the forces of Egyptian society and to a political crisis, as a result of which the 4th dynasty is replaced by the 5th (26-15th centuries BC); its founder is Pharaoh Userkaf. Its representatives reduce the scale of construction of pyramids and make concessions to the capital’s nobility (the highest positions cease to be the monopoly of the reigning house). In order to unite society, the cult of the god Ra is given a nationwide character (the concept of the origin of the pharaohs from Ra is approved). The stabilization of the domestic political situation allows the resumption of an active foreign policy: the predatory campaigns in Asia and Libya continue, in the south the Egyptians reach the third threshold, expeditions are organized to the south of the Red Sea (Punt) and to Phenicia.

Foreign policy aggression was continued by the first pharaohs of the 6th dynasty (25th – mid-23rd century BC) – Teti, Piopi I, Merenra, Piopi II. However, under them the power of the nome nobility increases, primarily in Upper Egypt; the positions of nomarchs again become hereditary; representatives of a number of nomaric clans occupy high positions in the central administrative apparatus and enter into kinship with the ruling house (nomarchs of Tina). Nomarchs are no longer buried near the royal tombs, but in the nomes; their tombs are becoming more luxurious. The central government is gradually weakening, its economic opportunities are shrinking: the practice of immunity grants is spreading, the nomarchs are gradually establishing control over the tsarist farms. Under the last pharaohs of the 6th dynasty, royal power fell into complete decline. The political crisis of the middle of the 23rd century. BC. leads to its fall and the actual disintegration of the state into independent principalities.

First Transition Period.

First Transition Period (Mid 23rd – Mid 21st Century): VII-X Dynasties.

During the reign of the VII and VIII dynasties, the power of the Memphis pharaohs was only nominal; in Egypt, political anarchy reigned. The loss of state unity was the reason for the collapse of the general Egyptian irrigation system, which caused an economic crisis and mass famine; the northern provinces were periodically raided by Asian nomads and Libyans. The inability of the nomes to cope with economic difficulties on their own has strengthened the unifying trend. The first contender for the role of the “gatherer” of the Egyptian lands was Heracleopolis, one of the largest cities in the north of Upper Egypt. Its rulers succeeded in subduing the Delta and the upper Egyptian region of Tina, repelling nomadic invasions and fortifying the northern borders; starting from Akhtoy (Kheti), they claimed the title of kings of all Egypt (IX-X dynasties). However, in its struggle for the unification of Egypt, the Heracleopolis kingdom met a rival in the person of the Theban kingdom formed in the south, which controlled the Nile valley from Abydos to the 1st threshold. Their confrontation ended at the end of the 21st century. BC. the victory of Thebes under Pharaoh Mentuhotep, who founded the XI dynasty. The integrity of the Egyptian state was restored.

Middle Kingdom.

Middle Kingdom (2005–1715 BC): XI – XIII Dynasties.

The restoration of a strong centralized state made it possible to restore a unified irrigation system, ensure a certain economic progress (a more perfect plow, a new breed of fine-fleeced sheep, the first bronze tools, paste glass), resume interrupted trade contacts and begin the development of wetlands in the Delta and in the Fayum Basin, which has become to the Fayum oasis. The period of the greatest prosperity of the Middle Kingdom was the reign of the XII Dynasty (1963–1789 BC). Its founder Amenemkhet I (1963–1943 BC) moved the capital from Thebes to the city of Ittaui (“Connecting two countries”) he built on the border of Lower and Upper Egypt, finally establishing the state unity. However, in their policy of centralization, Amenemhat I and his closest successors Senusret I, Amenemhat II, Senusert II and Senusret III faced opposition from the hereditary nominal nobility, which significantly increased during the First Transitional Period; she closely aligned with the provincial priesthood and controlled local military units and state property. The pharaohs restored the previous administrative apparatus, but the economic base of their power was limited: the size of the tsarist economy of the Middle Kingdom was significantly inferior to the tsarist economy of the epoch of III-VI dynasties. In its struggle with the nomarchs, the XII dynasty found support in the middle strata (“small”), actively attracting their representatives to public service (of which, for example, the royal guard was recruited – “accompanying the ruler”) and rewarding them with land, slaves and property. With the support of the “small” Amenemhat III (1843–1798 BC) managed to break the power of the nominal aristocracy, eliminating the hereditary power in the nomes; A symbol of triumph over provincial separatism was the Labyrinth built at the entrance to the Fayum oasis – the royal funeral temple, in which statues of nomad gods were collected.

The pharaohs of the XII dynasty resumed an active foreign policy of the rulers of the Old Kingdom. Amenemhat I and Senusret I invaded Nubia several times; it was finally conquered by Senusret III, who made the fortresses of Semne and Kumme at the second threshold of the Nile as the southern border of Egypt. Periodically, campaigns were made to Libya and Asia. Sinai Peninsula again became an Egyptian province; southern Palestine and part of Phenicia fell into dependence on Egypt.

The social system of the Middle Kingdom differed from the previous period in greater mobility and a special role of the middle strata: the state facilitated the transition from one level of the social ladder to another. The composition of the elite has changed significantly: alongside the hereditary metropolitan and nominal aristocracy, an influential layer of the service nobility has established itself. Conditional holding of land for service became widespread. Medium estates began to play a leading role in the economy. The number of small landowners also increased. The working population (“tsarist people”) was the object of the policy of state accounting and regulation of the labor force: upon reaching a certain age, all “tsarist people” were rewritten, distributed by profession (farmers, artisans, warriors, etc.) and royal and temple estates, and in the estates of large and medium officials. The number of slaves increased, the main source of which remained wars. They were used mainly in medium-sized private farms, the owners of which usually benefited little from the centralized distribution of labor resources.

Despite the strengthening of royal power under the XII Dynasty, social and political tensions persist in Egyptian society. Sharp contradictions exist within the elite, between the center and the provinces, the dissatisfaction of the “tsarist people” is deepening; The aristocracy periodically organizes conspiracies against the pharaohs (Amenemkhet I and Amenemkhet II died at the hands of the conspirators), the nomarchs rise uprisings (under Amenemkhet I, Senusret I, Senusret II), political investigation rages. The first symptoms of a weakening of the central power were found already under the last rulers of the XII dynasty (Amenemkhet IV and Queen Nefrusebek). This process is intensified during the XIII Dynasty, when the throne becomes a plaything in the hands of rival factions of the nobility; nevertheless, the state does not disintegrate, the administrative apparatus continues to function, Egypt keeps Nubia under its control. Political instability and a sharply deteriorating economic situation, however, lead to approx. 1715 BC to a social explosion – an uprising of the lower classes: the rebels seized and destroyed the capital, killed the pharaoh, expropriated state grain reserves, destroyed tax lists and inventories, and persecuted officials and judges. This movement, ultimately suppressed, dealt a fatal blow to the Middle Kingdom.

Second Transitional Period.

Second Transitional Period (1715 – c. 1554 BC): XIV-XVI Dynasties.

After the fall of the XIII dynasty, Egypt falls apart into independent nomes. The XIV dynasty, claiming to be the general Egyptian dynasty, established in Xois, actually controls only part of the Delta. OK. 1675 BC Egypt is invaded by the Hyksos, who created in the middle of the 18th century. BC. extensive tribal alliance in Palestine and Northern Arabia, and subjected it to a terrible defeat. They capture the Delta and make their capital the fortress of Avaris in its eastern part; their success was facilitated by the fact that they, unlike the Egyptians, used horses in military affairs. Hyksos chiefs take the title of Pharaoh (XV-XVI dynasties). However, they fail to achieve real subordination of the entire Nile Valley; only Lower Egypt is actually under their rule. Although some of the Upper Egyptian nomarchs recognize the rule of the Hyksos, this dependence remains rather formal, and it is limited to the payment of tribute. An independent Theban principality was formed in the south of Upper Egypt. Only at the beginning of the 17th century. BC. Hyksos Pharaoh Kian manages to establish control over all of Upper Egypt. But after his death, Thebes regained independence, and the Theban rulers proclaim themselves pharaohs (XVII dynasty). Its last representative – Kames – subdues the rest of the Upper Egyptian nomes and, despite the opposition of the nobility, begins, with the support of ordinary soldiers, a struggle for the expulsion of the Hyksos. He makes a successful trip to the Delta and forces them to retreat to Avaris. A decisive turning point in the war with foreigners is achieved by the brother and heir of Kames, Ahmose I: he wins several victories and captures Avaris after a three-year siege. The expulsion of the Hyksos ends with the capture of the Sharuchen fortress in southern Palestine c. 1554 BC

New Kingdom.

New Kingdom (c. 1554 – c. 1075 BC): XVIII – XX Dynasties.

The transformation of Egypt into a World Power.

Ahmose I, the founder of the XVIII dynasty, strengthened his power by suppressing the uprising in the southern nomes, and restored the Egyptian state within the Middle Kingdom, making a campaign in Nubia and pushing the southern border to the 2nd threshold.

Under the first pharaohs of the 18th dynasty (c. 1554–1306 BC), a number of military reforms were carried out: under the influence of the Hyksos, the Egyptians created a new branch of troops – light war chariots (with two horses, a driver and an archer); the navy was built; more advanced types of weapons began to be used (massive straight and light sickle-shaped chopping swords, powerful composite layered bow, arrows with copper tips, lamellar armor); a new system of manning the army was introduced (one soldier from ten men); the proportion of foreign mercenaries increased. These reforms became the basis for territorial expansion on an unprecedented scale.

The beginning of an active policy of foreign aggression was laid by the third pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, Thutmose I (Djehutimes), who ruled in the second half of the 16th century. BC. Thutmose I expanded the territory of Egypt to the 3rd threshold. He also made a successful campaign in Syria, reaching the Euphrates, where he defeated the troops of Mitanni, a powerful state in northern Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, Syria and Palestine did not become part of the Egyptian kingdom; with the support of the Mitannians, the Syrian and Palestinian rulers formed an anti-Egyptian coalition led by the prince of Kadesh. The son and heir of Thutmose I, Thutmose II brutally suppressed the uprising in Nubia and fought stubbornly against the Asian nomads. During the reign of his widow Hatshepsut (1490-1469 BC) there was a temporary rejection of the policy of conquest. However, with the accession to the throne of Thutmose III (1469–1436 BC), Egypt’s foreign policy aggression reached its climax. In 1468 BC. Thutmose III invaded Syria and Palestine, defeated the united army of local princes at Megiddo and, after a seven-month siege, captured the city. 1467 to 1448 BC he made more than fifteen trips to these lands. In 1457 BC. Pharaoh crossed the Euphrates and ravaged a number of Mitannian fortresses, in 1455 BC. inflicted a new defeat on the Mitannians. The campaign ended in 1448 BC. the capture of Kadesh; the Palestinian-Syrian coalition ceased to exist. Mitanni recognized Syria, Phenicia and Palestine as the sphere of influence of Egypt. Carchemish on the Euphrates became the northern border of the Egyptian state. At the same time, as a result of a successful struggle with the Ethiopian tribes, Thutmose III pushed the southern border to the 4th threshold. The conquered lands were placed under the control of the “chief of the northern countries” and the “chief of the southern countries”; control over them was provided by the Egyptian garrisons. Babylon, Assyria, the Hittite state, fearing Egyptian power, sent rich gifts to Thutmose III, which he considered a tribute.

His son and successor, Amenhotep II, spent most of his reign suppressing the uprisings of the Syrian and Palestinian rulers; seven of them he committed to cruel execution, more than one hundred thousand people were sold into slavery. His son Thutmose IV made several punitive expeditions to Palestine and Syria and severely punished the rebellious Nubians. To strengthen his position in the Eastern Mediterranean, he took a course of rapprochement with Mitanni and married a Mitannian princess. Under his successor Amenhotep III, the power of Egypt over Syria and Palestine was finally established; an attempt by the Hittites to provoke a revolt of some of the Syrian princes ended in complete failure. A new uprising by the Nubians was easily suppressed. Egypt became the most powerful state in Western Asia.

Socio-economic And Political Structure.

Successful wars led to an increase in the standard of living of the entire Egyptian population, but primarily the elite. Not only the military and court aristocracy was enriched, but also the priesthood: the pharaohs (especially Thutmose III) allocated a significant part of the booty to the temples. The massive influx of slaves (sources – captivity, tribute) contributed to the strengthening of the slave economy. Almost all Egyptians, even small landowners, had slaves. The capture of Syria provided access to tin mines, resulting in widespread use of bronze tools and weapons. The introduction of technical innovations (footed bellows, vertical loom, sheer-handled plow, water-lifting cranes for watering fields, hammers on long sticks for crushing earth clods) and the enrichment of production flora (lentils, fragrant resinous trees) and fauna (mules) have led to significant economic height. Yields increased, metal processing, weaving, glass making, and construction developed intensively. Domestic and foreign trade increased, although the monetary sector remained weak; there was no minted coin, the measure of value was mainly silver bars.

Military successes contribute to the strengthening of the power of the pharaoh and the dependence of the aristocracy on him. The notion of “personal home” is disappearing; the role of the conditional holding of land for service increases even more. The estates of the nobility look modest in comparison with the huge estates of the nobles of the Old and the nomarchs of the Middle Kingdom. The aristocracy does not have a hereditary monopoly on office. The pharaohs rely on the service nobility, fully indebted to him for their high social and property status; the most important channel of social advancement is the army, but the “new people” also reach the highest posts in the central and nominal administration (in the New Kingdom, only a part of nomarchs receive their posts by inheritance). People from families of medium and small landowners and artisans are actively penetrating all levels of the administrative apparatus. At the same time, the working population (“children of the people”) remains the object of the system of state registration and distribution (“reviews”). As for the slaves, there are significant changes in their position: they are often planted on the ground and turned into dependent holders; some of the prisoners are accepted for court service (royal bodyguards-sherdans, nubian runners) and military service (for example, entire tribes of Libyans, led by leaders, are guarding border fortresses).

The increasing complexity of administrative functions and the expansion of the territory require a restructuring of the bureaucratic system. The number of officials is growing, their duties are clearly regulated, a strict hierarchy is formed, headed by a supreme dignitary. The central apparatus consists of departments with a large staff: for the collection of taxes, for the supervision of arable land, for the supervision of livestock, the judiciary, the military, the reception chamber, the treasury. The country is divided into four regions – Theban (capital), Tinsky, Upper Egyptian and Lower Egyptian, the chiefs of which are appointed by the supreme dignitary and report to him every four months; the apparatus operating under them copies the central one. The high dignitary also appoints and tightly controls the nomarchs; large cities are withdrawn from their sphere of power, the administration of which is carried out by officials appointed from the center. Nomes are divided into districts, consisting of villages and settlements.

Akhenaten’s Reform And The Weakening Of Egypt.

The son of Amenhotep III Amenhotep IV (1365–1348 BC), with the support of the serving nobility, carried out a religious reform directed against the cult of the god Amun and the powerful Theban priesthood closely associated with him. Pharaoh proclaimed the supreme and only cult of the solar disk of Aten; the rest of the deities were either canceled or transferred to the rank of Aten’s servants. Amenhotep IV took the name “Akhenaten” (“Good for Aton”) and moved with the court from Thebes to the newly founded capital Akhetaton (El-Amarna) in Central Egypt. However, this reform, which a number of researchers consider monotheistic, caused rejection not only from the Theban priesthood, but also from the general population, since it denied the religious ideas rooted in the minds of the Egyptians (anthropo- or zoomorphic appearance of God, divine genealogy, etc.). The reform led to a split in Egyptian society and a weakening of the Egyptian state. Concentrating his efforts on establishing a new religion, Akhenaten abandoned an active foreign policy and largely lost control over the territories seized by his predecessors: he did not try to organize resistance to the Hittite onslaught on Syria; under him, most of the Syrian and Palestinian princes gained de facto independence from Egypt. Egyptian hegemony in the Middle East is a thing of the past.

Last Pharaohs of the XVIII Dynasty.

Akhenaten’s successors gradually abandoned his policies. His son-in-law and heir Smenkhkare restored the cult of Amun, and his successor Tutankhaton (another son-in-law of Akhenaten) deprived the cult of Aton of the state status, took the name of Tutankhamun and left Akhetaton, moving, however, not to Thebes, but to Memphis. He patronized the priesthood and the local nobility associated with it; he also tried to revive the previous policy of conquest and strengthen Egypt’s position in Palestine and Syria. After the death of Tutankhamun, his widow married a Hittite prince, but he was killed as a result of a conspiracy by the Egyptian aristocracy; Pharaoh was the head of the chariot army, Ey, a member of the XVIII dynasty. At the call of the widow of Tutankhamun, the Hittites invaded Egypt and defeated the Egyptian army, but were forced to retreat due to the outbreak of an epidemic. Eyu was replaced by the protege of the Theban priesthood, the military leader Horemheb (1334-1306 BC), who carried out a series of reforms in order to strengthen the internal and external position of Egypt. He streamlined the collection of taxes, fought against arbitrariness, embezzlement and bribery of officials, divided the army into northern and southern troops for military operations in the Asian and Nubian directions, increased the number of mercenaries (mainly at the expense of the Libyans), improved the army’s supply system and improved its command structure … Following the example of his predecessors, Horemheb contributed to the promotion of talented representatives of the ignorant strata and skillfully balanced between the servicemen and the nominee aristocracy; he generously endowed temples, but did not want to return to Thebes, the citadel of the priesthood, and settled in Memphis. A system of two capitals arose – Memphis became the seat of the pharaoh, court, supreme administration and military command, Thebes remained the main religious center.

XIX – XX Dynasties.

The policy of Horemheb prepared the way for the restoration of the power of Egypt during the 19th dynasty (1306–1197 BC), founded by Ramses I. Under her, an active foreign policy was resumed. Its main direction was the struggle for Syria, Palestine and Phenicia; in this struggle, the main rival of Egypt was the Hittite state. The son and successor of Ramses I, Seti I, managed to subdue the strategically important state of Amurra in southwestern Syria, which was previously dependent on the Hittites. His successor, Ramses II (1290–1224 BC) in 1286 BC. made a trip to Syria, during which the Hittite king Muwattalla lured him into a trap at Kadesh; only with great difficulty did the Pharaoh manage to avoid defeat. The embarrassment at Kadesh caused an almost widespread uprising in Syrian and Palestinian cities. For sixteen years (1286–1270 BC), Ramses II waged a fierce struggle with the Hittites, who persistently avoided open battles, and with the local population who supported them. The mutual exhaustion of opponents prompted them to come to an agreement. In 1270 BC. Pharaoh concluded an agreement with the Hittite king Hattusili III on the division of disputed territories: the Egyptians received South Syria, Palestine and Phenicia, while the Hittites got the main part of Syria, including Amurr; the parties pledged to resolve conflicts by diplomatic means and provide each other with military support in the event of an attack by a third party (meaning Assyria, which had become stronger by that time). Ramses II married a Hittite princess. Treaty of 1270 BC – the first known document of this kind in the history of international relations.

Under Ramses II, complete control of Egypt over Nubia was also restored. In the conquered territories, he erected numerous fortresses and resettled the Egyptian colonists. With significant resources, the pharaoh carried out large-scale, primarily palace and temple construction; in the east of the Delta, he founded a new capital – Per-Ramses (“House of Ramses”). Under him, large-scale irrigation works were carried out in Lower Egypt, as a result of which new fertile lands were included in the economic circulation. The reign of Ramses II was a period of economic and political prosperity for Egypt.

His son and successor Merneptah (1224–1214 BC) repelled the invasion of the “Sea Peoples” (the alliance of the tribes of the west of Asia Minor and the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean) and the invasion of the Libyans; he also suppressed the uprising in Syria. In his religious policy, Merneptah supported the Memphis cult of the god Ptah and showed disdain for the cult of Amun, which displeased the Theban priesthood. After his death, a period of weakening of the central authority begins: leapfrog on the throne is accompanied by the growth of the power of the nomarchs. The deterioration of the economic situation of broad strata of Egyptian society is ca. 1200 BC a massive uprising led by a Syrian Irsu. He overthrows the 19th dynasty and proclaims himself pharaoh; nomarchs become completely independent; Syria, Phenicia and Palestine throw off Egyptian rule; “Sea Peoples” systematically plunder the eastern Delta, and the Libyans begin to settle in the northeastern regions of Egypt. OK. 1197 BC the representative of the Egyptian aristocracy Setnakht (1197–1190 BC) overthrows Irsu, restores the territorial integrity of Egypt and founds the XX dynasty (1197–1075 BC).

During the reign of his son and successor Ramses III (1190-1159 BC), Egypt experienced its last rise in power. Ramses III carried out a military reform: dividing the entire population into conscription groups, he obliged them to supply a certain number of soldiers; he also increased the number of mercenaries, mainly from Libyans and Sea Peoples. Having thus strengthened the army, the pharaoh was able to return Palestine, Phenicia and Syria under the rule of Egypt and repel several invasions (the Libyans in 1185 BC, the “peoples of the sea” in 1182 BC, the Maxies in 1179 BC). ). However, already under him there were signs of a worsening of the internal political situation. The patronage of temples and priesthood (generous gifts, exemption from military service) led to the depletion of the treasury; In a number of nomes, unrest of the lower classes broke out (a strike of artisans in Thebes in 1171 BC), dissatisfaction was growing among the service nobility. In 1159 BC. Ramses III fell victim to a conspiracy of his entourage.

Under his successors (from Rameses IV to Rameses XI), the Egyptian state was gradually declining. Egypt is losing control of its Asian dominions; after Ramses VI, any traces of the dependence of Syria and Palestine on the pharaohs disappear. Libyans continue to settle in the northwestern regions. The royal power is weakening, and the influence of the Theban priesthood and nomarchs is increasing; the government of Upper Egypt is actually in the hands of the high priests of Amun in Thebes, who made their office hereditary; under Ramses XI, the high priest of Amon Herihor is simultaneously the supreme dignitary, military leader and governor of Nubia. With the death of Ramses XI in 1075 BC. the XX dynasty ends, and Egypt falls into two parts – Upper Egypt with the capital in Thebes, where Herihor seizes power, and Lower Egypt with the center in Tanis, where Nesubanebjed (Smendes), the founder of the XXI dynasty, reigns.

Third Transitional Period.

Third Transitional Period (1075-945 BC): XXI Dynasty.

The division of Egypt led to the disintegration of a single tsarist economy, the foundation of state centralization. The royal estates in the nomes are in the hands of the local nobility and priesthood. The conditional holdings of officials become their property. Egypt is turning into an arena of rivalry between regional groups of the aristocracy. Everywhere, especially in the south, the power of the temples is increasing. There is no longer a force capable of consolidating the resources of society for an active foreign policy. Egypt ceases to be a great power in the Eastern Mediterranean and loses the last remnants of its foreign possessions; control even over heavily Egyptian Nubia is weakening. The mass penetration of the Libyans into Lower Egypt continues: they settle there in whole tribes, form the backbone of the Egyptian army, their leaders increasingly occupy the posts of nomarchs and enter into kinship with the local secular and spiritual nobility.

Later Kingdom.

Later Kingdom (945–525 BC): XXII – XXVI Dynasties.

Libyan Egypt (945–712 BC): XXII – XXIV Dynasties.

Livization of Lower Egypt naturally ends with the ascension in 945 BC. to the throne of the representative of the Libyan aristocracy Sheshonka I, the founder of the XXII (Libyan) dynasty (945-722 BC). He legitimizes his power by marrying one son to the daughter of the last pharaoh of the XXI dynasty, and subjugates Upper Egypt, making the other son the high priest of Amun in Thebes. The capital is moved to Bubast in the southeastern part of the Delta. Sheshonk I returns to the aggressive foreign policy course of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom: c. 930 BC he intervenes in the struggle between the Kingdoms of Judah and Israel on the side of the latter, invades Palestine and captures Jerusalem. He also manages to regain control of Nubia. Significant resources at the disposal of the tsarist power allow Sheshonk I and his closest successors to develop palace and temple construction. The XXII dynasty relies primarily on the Libyan army; in addition, its representatives seek to acquire the support of the priesthood, primarily in the north, generously granting the temples land, movable and immovable property, slaves, various privileges and making rich sacrifices.

In the IX century. BC. the weakening of the power of the Libyan pharaohs began. The Libyan nobility strengthened their positions so much that they no longer needed patronage from the center. Lower Egypt actually disintegrated into many small semi-independent possessions headed by Libyan nomarchs and military leaders; this was facilitated by rivalry within the ruling dynasty, whose representatives created the most powerful principalities (Heracleopolis, Memphis, Tanis). Power over Upper Egypt remained purely formal. The narrowing of the material possibilities of the pharaohs of the XXII dynasty led to their inability to prevent the Assyrian aggression in Syria and provide effective assistance to their main ally – the Damascus kingdom; in 840 BC it was defeated. In 808 BC. the ruler of Tanis refused to recognize the supremacy of the XXII dynasty and took the title of Pharaoh, founding the XXIII dynasty (808–730 BC). In the VIII century. BC. the kings of the XXII dynasty actually controlled only the Bubasta region.

In the middle of the VIII century. BC. Egypt faced a new strong adversary – the Kingdom of Napata (Kush), which arose on the territory of Nubia and extended its power from the 6th to the 1st Nile threshold. Kushite influence in Upper Egypt increased significantly under the king of Kasht, who achieved the elevation of his daughter to the rank of high priestess (“wife of Amun”) in Thebes. His son and successor Pianhi, with the support of the Theban priesthood, subdued the southern regions of Egypt. The Kushite threat prompted the Libyan princes of the North to organize a coalition led by Tefnacht, ruler of Sais and Ision in the western Delta. Tefnacht established control over the west of Lower and north of Upper Egypt and prompted the border principality of Hermopolis in the central part of the country to fall away from the Kushites. But in 730 BC. Pianhi defeated the Libyan forces in the battles of Thebes and Heracleopolis, captured Hermopolis, won a decisive victory at Memphis and took this city. The Lower Egyptian rulers, including the Bubastian pharaoh Osorkon and Tefnakht himself, had to recognize the power of the Napata king.

The Kushite dominion in the northern regions of Egypt was, however, fragile: after his victory, Pianhi returned to Napata, leaving no Kushite garrisons in the Lower Egyptian cities. By 722 BC. Delta was again in the hands of Tefnakht, who assumed the title of Pharaoh (722–718 BC) and founded the 24th dynasty; his son Bakenranf (Bokhoris) (718–712 BC), subdued the central regions of the country. Tefnacht and Buckenranf relied on simple Libyan warriors, as well as the middle and lower strata of the Egyptian population. In an effort to strengthen the army and expand the tax base, they fought against debt slavery and hindered the growth of large land ownership (laws against luxury, on the responsibility of debtors for their debt only by their property, on the limitation of loan interest, on the prohibition of enslaving the indigenous Egyptians). This policy pushed away from the 24th dynasty the priesthood and aristocracy, who preferred to support the Kushites. In 712 BC. the Napata king Shabaka defeated Buckenranf and took possession of the Delta; Buckenranff was captured and burned. A single Kushite-Egyptian kingdom was formed.

Kushite Egypt And Assyrian Conquest.

Kushite Egypt And Assyrian Conquest (712–655 BC): XXV Dynasty.

Shabaka (712–697 BC) became the founder of the XXV (Ethiopian) dynasty (712–664 BC). He set out for a close alliance with the priesthood. He moved his residence from Napata to Memphis, the center of the cult of Ptah, and introduced his children to the high Theban priesthood. However, at the end of the 8th century. BC. increased threat from Assyria, which in 722 BC. destroyed the kingdom of Israel. In 701 BC. the Assyrian king Sinacherib invaded Judea; Shabaka tried to help the Jewish king Hezekiah, but the Egyptian army was defeated at Altak; Pharaoh’s sons were captured, and Hezekiah submitted to the conquerors. Under the second successor of Shabaka Taharqa (689–664 BC), Egypt became the direct target of Assyrian aggression. Taharqa encouraged the Palestinian and Phoenician kings to secede from Assyria. In response, the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 674 BC, having previously secured the loyalty of the Arabian tribes, made a trip to Egypt, but Taharka managed to prevent him from penetrating deep into the country. In 671 BC. Esarhaddon again invaded Egypt, broke the resistance of Taharqa, took and plundered Memphis. The Assyrians took possession of the country as far as Thebes and turned it into a province; they placed their garrisons in the cities, imposed a great tribute and introduced the cult of the god Ashur; at the same time, the northern Libyan dynasts, which recognized the authority of Assyria, retained their possessions. Esarhaddon assumed the title of King of Egypt and Kush.

Soon Taharka, having gathered considerable forces in the south, expelled the Assyrian troops from Egypt and liberated Memphis; however, the Libyan princes did not support him. Esarhaddon moved his troops to Egypt and defeated the Kushite army on the Palestinian border. Taharka, pursued by the Assyrians, fled first to Thebes and then to Nubia. Egypt was divided into twenty districts led by nomarchs from the local nobility under the control of the Assyrian military and civil administration.

The heavy Assyrian oppression caused discontent among the most diverse strata of Egyptian society. In 667 BC. a group of northern princes led by Necho, ruler of Sais and Memphis, formed a ramified conspiracy against the conquerors. Necho tried to establish contact with Taharka, but his messengers were intercepted by the Assyrians. The rebellious cities were brutally repressed, but the new Assyrian king Ashurbanapal pardoned the leaders of the conspiracy; he returned Necho to his possession, and appointed his son Psammetichus ruler of Atrib in the southern Delta. This allowed the Assyrians to strengthen their position among the Libyan nominal nobility.

After the death of Taharka in 664 BC. his successor Tanutamon decided to reconquer Egypt. In 663 BC. with the support of the population and especially the priesthood, he easily took possession of Upper Egypt, and then took Memphis. But he failed to subdue the northern princes, who remained overwhelmingly loyal to Assyria. Ashurbanipal marched on Egypt with a swift march. Tanutamon was unable to organize resistance and fled to Nubia. The Assyrians subjected Thebes, the main ally of the Cushites, to a terrible defeat. Some time later, Tanutamon regained control over the southern regions of Upper Egypt and restored Thebes, which, however, forever lost their former political, religious and cultural significance.

Sais Egypt.

Sais Egypt (655–525 BC): XXVI Dynasty.

In 664 BC. the ruler of Sais, the largest economic center of the Delta, is the son of Neho Psammetich. With significant material resources, he formed a strong mercenary army from the Carians and Greeks of Asia Minor, and in the early 650’s BC. united under his rule the Lower Egypt, and in 656-655 BC. subdued Upper Egypt and made his daughter the high priestess of Amun in Thebes. Having restored state unity, Psammetichus I (664–610 BC) expelled the Assyrian garrisons from the country and proclaimed himself pharaoh, founding the XXVI (Sais) dynasty (655–525 BC). His mainstay was the northern priesthood, which helped him suppress the separatism of the Libyan dynasties. Pharaoh’s patronage of foreign mercenaries, to whom he provided land for settlement, aggravated his relations with soldiers of Libyan-Egyptian origin. He deprived them of a number of privileges, which provoked a series of riots and even the departure of part of the army to Nubia.

Psammetichus I led a course for the revival of ancient customs and way of life. At the same time, he encouraged trade with other countries and supported foreign merchants, primarily the Greeks, whom he allowed to establish the colony of Navcratis in the western Delta. In his foreign policy, the pharaoh in 650–630 BC. focused on an alliance with the Babylonian kingdom and Lydia, trying to prevent the restoration of Assyrian rule. However, from the 620s BC. he began to support the rapidly weakening Assyria, which was hardly holding back the onslaught of the Babylonian-Medes coalition. True, he was not able to help her during the invasion of the Scythian nomads into Western Asia, from whom he himself was forced to pay off. Psammetichus I showed great concern for strengthening the borders of Egypt, especially the northeastern ones, where he built a number of strong fortresses.

His son and successor Necho II (610–595 BC) tried to save the dying Assyria. In 608 BC. he invaded Palestine, defeated the Babylonian ally, the Jewish king Josiah, at Megiddo, elevated his protege Joachim to the Jewish throne and imposed tribute on his kingdom, and then made a campaign to the Euphrates. But in 605 BC. Babylonian prince Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Egyptians under Carchemish and drove them out of Syria, Phenicia and Palestine. The border with the Babylonian kingdom passed along the Gaza line – the Gulf of Aqaba. OK. 600 BC Phoenician sailors on behalf of the pharaoh made an expedition around Africa. Under him, work began on the construction of a canal between the Mediterranean and the Red Seas.

Necho II was succeeded by his son Psammetichus II (595–589 BC). He organized several predatory raids on Syria, Palestine and Nubia and strengthened his influence in the southern regions of Egypt, making his daughter the high priestess of Amun. Psammetichus II was succeeded on the throne by his son Apriy (589–567 BC), during whose reign the tension in the relationship between mercenaries and Libyan-Egyptian warriors deepened (revolt in Elephantine). Aprius supported the Jewish king Zedekiah, who rebelled against Babylon. He won a naval victory over the Tyrians and Cypriots, allies of the Babylonians, made a campaign against Sidon, forced the Babylonian army to lift the siege of Jerusalem, but then was defeated and was forced to withdraw from Phenicia and Palestine. In 570 BC. Aprius went to war with the Greek state of Cyrene (west of Egypt), but his army was not successful; the Libyan warriors rebelled and proclaimed the dignitary Ahmose (Amasis) as Pharaoh, who was recognized in both Upper and Lower Egypt; nevertheless, Aprius, with the help of mercenaries, held out in the Delta until his death in 567 BC.

Ahmose II (570-526 BC) continued the pro-Greek policy of his predecessors: he was married to a Greek woman from Cyrene, generously endowed Greek temples, granted privileges to Navcratis, brought Greek mercenaries closer to him and formed a detachment of bodyguards from them. Under him there was a significant revival of crafts and trade. Pharaoh allocated large sums for construction. He lowered the land tax and taxes in favor of the temples, established control over their income, which quarreled with the priesthood. Discontent was also expressed by the Libyan-Egyptian part of the army and the aristocratic supporters of Aprius, who considered Ahmose II a usurper. Internal strife weakened Egypt in the face of external threats.

In 568-567 BC. Ahmose II repelled the invasion of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. Taking advantage of a peaceful respite, he created a strong navy, with the help of which he subdued Cyprus; he also made successful trips to Arabia and Nubia. However, in 550 BC. a new danger arose from the aggressive Achaemenid power (Persia), which prompted the pharaoh to join an anti-Persian coalition with Lydia, the Greek states of Sparta and Samos and his old enemy Babylon. The defeat of Lydia by the Persians in 546 BC and Babylon in 539 BC. significantly worsened the foreign policy position of Egypt, which remained the only adversary of Persia in the Middle East.

After the death of Ahmose II in 526 BC. the throne was taken by his son Psammetichus III (526-525 BC). A few months later, the Persian king Cambyses (529-522 BC) invaded Egypt and, thanks to the betrayal of the commander of the Greek mercenaries Phanes and some Egyptian military leaders, won in the spring of 525 BC. a decisive victory over Psammetichus III at Pelusia. The army retreated to Memphis, but the commander of the Egyptian fleet Ujagorresnet surrendered Sais to the Persians without a fight and allowed the enemy squadron to penetrate deep into the Delta, which led to the surrender of the Egyptian troops and the fall of Memphis; Pharaoh and his family were captured. The whole country, up to the first threshold, was under the rule of the Persians. The uprising that broke out in Egypt in 524 BC after the failure of Cambyses’ attempts to conquer Cyrene and Nubia, it was brutally suppressed: the Persian king executed Psammetichus III and destroyed the temples, whose priests supported the rebels.

Egypt During the Achaemenid Era.

Egypt During the Achaemenid Age (525–332 BC): XXVII – XXX Dynasties.

Period of the First Persian Dominion (525–404 BC): XXVII (Persian) Dynasty.

In the first decades of Persian rule (under Cambyses and Darius I), Egypt occupied a privileged position as part of the Achaemenid state. The power of the Persians over Egypt was in the nature of a personal union: in August 525 BC. Cambyses assumed the title of Pharaoh; Achaemenids became the XXVII dynasty of Egypt. Persian kings were crowned with the Egyptian crown and used the traditional Egyptian dating of reigns. The Persians allowed the Egyptians to keep their religion and their customs. Although the government of the country was concentrated in the hands of a Persian satrap with residence in Memphis, and Persian garrisons were located in the main cities, a number of higher positions remained with the Egyptians. Cambyses compensated the temples for the damage caused by the Persians during the conquest. Darius I (522–486 BC) carried out intensive temple construction; under him, the construction of a canal between the Mediterranean and the Red Seas was completed. This policy was largely dictated by the strategic and economic value of Egypt for the Persians: it was one of the most profitable satrapies – the amount of taxes received from it annually amounted to seven hundred talents of silver.

Until the mid 480s BC Egypt remained loyal, except for the separatist uprising of the satrap Ariand during the period of dynastic civil strife in Persia in 522-521 BC. However, an increase in taxes at the end of the reign of Darius I and the hijacking of Egyptian artisans to Persia for the construction of royal palaces in Susa and Persepolis caused in October 486 BC. mass uprising, which the new Persian king Xerxes (486-465 BC) managed to suppress only in January 484 BC. Xerxes harshly dealt with the rebels and radically changed his policy towards Egypt: he did not accept the title of Pharaoh, thereby annulling personal union, carried out extensive confiscations of temple property, and abandoned the practice of appointing Egyptians to administrative positions. This provoked an increase in anti-Persian sentiment.

In 461 BC. one of the Libyan princes of the western Delta, Inar, rebelled against Persian rule; he received military assistance from the Greeks who fought with the Persians, led by the Athenians. The combined Greek-Egyptian army won in 459 BC. victory over the Persians at Papremis, took Memphis and captured most of the Nile Valley. But in 455 BC. Egypt was invaded by a three hundred thousandth Persian army under the command of Megabyz, supported by a strong fleet (three hundred ships), and defeated the allied forces. Greek and Egyptian troops took up defenses on the island. Prosopitis in the Delta, however Megabyzus succeeded in June 454 BC. break into the island and destroy them; the Athenian squadron that arrived to help the defenders was destroyed in the Mendesian branch of the Nile. The remnants of the Athenians fled to Cyrene. Inar was captured and put to painful execution.

Started in the second half of the 5th century. BC. the process of the weakening of the Achaemenid state was accompanied by the strengthening of the separatist movement in Egypt. In 405 BC. Amirtei, the ruler of Sais, rebelled. He won several victories over the Persians and took control of the Delta. Because of the internecine war that broke out in Persia between the king Artaxerxes II and his brother Cyrus the Younger, the Persians could not send large forces to suppress the uprising, and Amirtei by the beginning of the 5th century. BC. liberated all of Egypt.

Egyptian Independence Period.

Period of Independence of Egypt (405–342 BC): XXVIII – XXX Dynasties.

Amirtei (405–398 BC), although he founded the XXVIII (Sais) dynasty, turned out to be its only representative. It was replaced by the XXIX dynasty (398–380 BC), originating from Mendes in the eastern Delta. After the period of omnipotence of the temple and secular nobility (398–393 BC), saturated with palace coups, Akoris (393–380 BC) seized the throne, during which the internal and external position of Egypt was strengthened. Akoris created a defensive line on the northeastern border, entered into an anti-Persian alliance with Cyrene, Barca, Pisidia and Cyprus and extended his influence to Palestine and Phenicia. In 385–382 BC. he successfully repelled the Persian invasion.

In 380 BC. the throne was usurped by Nehtnebef (Nectaneb) from Sevennite in the eastern Delta, who founded the XXX dynasty (380–342 BC). Nehtheneb I (380–363 BC) managed in 373 BC. thwart a new attempt by the Persians to regain control of Egypt; he was helped in this by the heroic defense of Pelusius, the mediocrity of the Persian commander and the flooding of the Nile. Realizing the limitations of his military capabilities, he concluded an alliance agreement with the most powerful Greek states – Athens and Sparta. In domestic politics, Nehtkheneb I patronized the priesthood in every possible way: he generously endowed churches, provided them with tax benefits, attracted the priests to solve state affairs and did not spare money for temple construction. His son and heir Tach (363–361 BC) abandoned his father’s priestly course. In need of funds for an active foreign policy, he forced the temples to provide him with a large loan, causing sharp discontent in religious circles. He also raised the old and introduced new emergency taxes and forced the entire population to surrender all gold and silver to the treasury against future taxes. This allowed him to raise a huge army (eighty thousand Egyptians and eleven thousand Greek mercenaries). Taking advantage of the rebellion of the Asia Minor satraps against the Persian king Artaxerxes II, Tach invaded Phenicia and Syria, but an uprising broke out in Egypt, the success of which was facilitated by the hostility of various social strata to the policies of the pharaoh and the support of the Spartans; his relative Nekhtgorheb (Nektaneb II) was proclaimed the new king; Tahu had to flee to the court of the Persian king.

Nehtgorheb (361–342 BC) completely broke with the course of his predecessor: he withdrew the Egyptian army from Syria and began to patronize the priesthood in every possible way (building temples in all parts of the country, rich gifts and sacrifices). Under him there was a military weakening of Egypt, which facilitated the Persian aggression. The campaign of the Persians in 350 BC it broke not because of the resistance of the Egyptians, but because of the inept actions of the guides during the passage of the army through the desert and because of the flooding of the Nile. In 345 BC. Nehtgorkheb sent troops to help Sidon, who had set aside from the Persians, but the mercenaries went over to the side of the enemy. In winter 343/342 BC. the Persian king Artaxerxes III invaded Egypt. Pharaoh concentrated significant forces at Pelusius (sixty thousand Egyptians and forty thousand Libyan and Greek mercenaries), but the Persian fleet managed to break into the Delta and ended up in the rear at Nehtgorheb; Pharaoh had to retreat to Memphis. In the army, feuds intensified between Egyptian soldiers and mercenaries; the Greeks began to go over to the side of the Persians and surrender the most important fortresses to them. In this situation, Nehtgorkheb, without giving a single battle, fled to the south; by the end of 342 BC Artaxerxes III took possession of Lower and part of Upper Egypt; Pharaoh retained only a few southern regions.

Second Period of Persian Dominion.

Second Period of Persian Dominion (342–332 BC).

The restoration of Persian domination in Egypt was accompanied by brutal repressions against the local population: the Persians destroyed a number of cities, confiscated a significant part of temple treasures, and outraged religious shrines. After the death of Nehtgorheb in 341 BC. they subdued the southern part of Egypt, but their power was very fragile. Already approx. 337 BC a certain Habbash rebelled, captured Memphis, expelled the Persians and assumed the title of Pharaoh. Although in 335 BC. the new Persian king Darius III restored power over Egypt, three years later the Persian rule finally collapsed, as soon as the new conqueror – Alexander the Great – approached the banks of the Nile. From the end of 332 BC. Egypt became part of the world Macedonian power. The Hellenistic period of its history began.

Culture.

For millennia, the ancient Egyptian culture was distinguished by relative isolation and self-sufficiency, and was little subject to external influences. She was characterized by deep conservatism and loyalty from ancient times to established principles; new trends invariably met with strong resistance. At its core, it embodied human fear of an uncontrollable natural element and admiration for the power of the pharaoh as the organizer and guardian of world order. The leading image of Egyptian culture was the image of the Great River – the Nile – and its leading idea was the idea of ​​eternity. The concept of frozen time and frozen space was expressed in its perfect form in the most famous monuments of the Egyptian genius – the pyramids.

Religion.

The Egyptian religion is difficult to present in a systematic form, for its essence lies not in theology, but in cult. It is extremely diverse; theology could not have a decisive unifying influence on it.

Popular beliefs and cult existed long before the emergence of the state, their traces are found in 6-4 thousand. BC. The early form of Egyptian religion is characterized by the deification of the surrounding world and all its elements (trees, animals, dwellings, forces of nature, etc.) and the special vitality of the animal cult. Initially, the Egyptians revered the animals themselves, endowing them with magical properties: the cult of the hawk and the cat was widespread, in some areas they worshiped the crocodile and the hippo. Later, animals began to see the embodiment of certain gods: the black bull with white spots personified the god of fertility Apis (Memphis), the crocodile – the god of water and the flood of the Nile Sebek (Fayum), the ibis – the god of wisdom Thoth (Hermopolis), the lioness – the goddess of war and the scorching sun Sekhmet (Memphis), the cat – the goddess of joy and fun Bast (Bubast), the falcon – the god of the hunt Horus (Behdet), etc. Gradually the pantheon anthropomorphized, however, zoomorphic features, as a rule, remained and coexisted with anthropomorphic ones: He turned from an ibis into a man with an ibis head, Bast from a cat to a woman with a cat’s head, Horus from a falcon to a man with a falcon’s head, etc. The bull and the snake were of particular importance. It was believed that at the beginning of the beginning all the gods and goddesses were bulls and cows of different colors. In ancient times, the cult of the bull was associated with the veneration of the leader of the tribe, and after the emergence of the state it united with the cult of the pharaoh: for example, at the festival in honor of the thirty years of his reign, the pharaoh appeared in clothes with an oxtail tied to it from behind. The snake personified both evil (Apop, the enemy of the Sun) and good (the goddess of fertility Renenutet, the goddess of Lower Egypt, Uto).

Over time, each community develops its own pantheon of local gods, embodied in heavenly bodies, stones, animals, plants, etc. Among them, the god is the head of the local pantheon, the creator of this territory and people living on it, their lord and patron – solar deities Atum (Heliopolis) and Horus (Edfu), the gods of agriculture and fertility Set (eastern Delta), Amon (Thebes), Min (Coptos), etc. Then a special cult of the god of burial arises, the lord of the “city of the dead” (necropolis) – Sokar in Memphis, Anubis in Siut, Heniamenti in Abydos. Later, general Egyptian gods appear, not associated with a specific area – Ra (Sun), Ah (Moon), Nut (Sky), Geb (Earth), Hapi (Nile).

At the same time, some local cults spread beyond their communities: thanks to migrations and conquests, the gods follow their worshipers to new territories, where they are identified or linked by kinship with local gods. As a result, divine triads are created: in Thebes, to the married couple of the god of earth and fertility Amun and the goddess of burial Meritseger, the god of war Mentu from the neighboring city of Hermont is added as a son, and then Meritseger is replaced by the goddess of the eastern part of Theban district Mut, and Mentu is replaced by the god of the moon Khonsu from another area adjacent to Thebes (Theban triad); in Memphis, the earth god Ptah merges with the funeral god Sokar, then acquires a spouse in the person of the war goddess Sekhmet from neighboring Latopol, who turns into the goddess of the sky, and her son, the god of vegetation Nefertum, becomes their common son (Memphis triad). The most striking example of the absorption of some gods by others with the accompanying usurpation of functions is Osiris, the patron god of the city of Busiris, who assimilated with the Busiris god Dedu, with the god of the Nile from neighboring Mendes and with the Abydos god of burials Heniamenti; as a result, he became the deity of the Nile, the productive forces of nature and the afterlife; the center of his cult moved to Abydos.

At the next stage, the common Egyptian gods converge with the most influential related local gods: Ra is identified with the solar deities Atum and Horus, Ah – with the lunar god Thoth, Nut – with the heavenly deity Hathor, and Hapi – with Osiris. With the unification of the state, the cult of the supreme god is born, which becomes the main deity of the capital or hometown of the ruling dynasty. At the same time, the significance of the deities of the largest centers – the Memphis Ptah, the Abydos Osiris, the Heliopolis Atum – is growing.

With the accession of the V dynasty, originating from Heliopolis, Atum-Ra was proclaimed the main Egyptian deity, and the solar cult spreads throughout the Nile Valley, although it did not succeed in suppressing all local cults, especially in the central and southern provinces. The first theological concept is created, the goal of which is to turn as many gods into solar ones as possible and to identify them with Ra. This fate befell the gods of the earth and fertility Ptah, Mina, the gods of the Nile Osiris and Khnum. A semi-monotheistic system arises, in which different deities are different functions or different stages of the existence of one single god, mysterious and inaccessible: Ra-father – yesterday’s sun, Ra-son – today; the divine beetle Khepera – morning, Ra – noon, Atum – evening, Osiris – hidden in the west (deceased). A cycle of solar myths is formed, linking the act of creation with the birth of the sun from a lotus flower or from a huge heavenly cow; the sun is viewed as a demiurge: the first gods Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) appear as a result of self-fertilization of the sun, which swallowed its own seed, and people – from its tears. The first generations of the gods form the Geleopolis Ennead (nine), which is venerated throughout Egypt. A cycle of myths about solar gods arises, which reflects ideas about the changing seasons and days (the myth of the departure and return of Ra’s daughter Tefnut to Egypt, marking the beginning and end of drought, the myth of the daily birth and swallowing of the sun by the goddess of the sky, etc.) and the struggle of the sun with darkness and evil (the myth of the victory of Ra over the serpent Apophis). Shrines of Ra are being erected everywhere, around which a large number of priests are concentrated.

In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the solar cult successfully conquered Upper Egypt: the Fayum Sebek turns into Sebek-Ra, the Theban Amon – into Amon-Ra. The cult of Amun-Ra is gaining special significance due to the increased political and economic role of Thebes. In the era of the New Kingdom, it reaches its peak, which even the religious reforms of Akhenaten cannot prevent. Amon-Ra is seen in this period as a demiurge and as the king of the gods; the reigning pharaoh is considered his son. In the southern regions, the Theban priesthood creates a real theocratic regime.

At the same time, from the period of the Middle Kingdom, the cult of Osiris began to compete with solar cults as the god of a resurrected and dying nature and as the ruler of the afterlife; a cycle of myths about him, about his wife Isis and his son Horus, spreads (the murder of Osiris by his brother Set, the evil god of the desert, Isis’s search and mourning for the body of her husband, Horus’s victory over Set and his resurrection of his father by him). By the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. the cult of Osiris becomes the focus of all funeral beliefs. If in the era of the ancient kingdom only the deceased pharaoh was identified with Osiris, then in the Middle Kingdom – every deceased Egyptian.

The mythology of Osiris is reflected in numerous rituals. At the beginning of spring, the mysteries of Osiris were staged, reproducing in dramatic form the main episodes of his mythical history; in the finale, a special “jed” pillar was erected, symbolizing the rebirth of God and all nature. The coronation ceremony was timed to these mysteries, during which the young pharaoh played the role of Horus, and the deceased was portrayed as Osiris seated on the throne. As the personification of Osiris in his function as the god of fertility, the pharaoh performed the main agricultural rituals: he threw a scroll into the Nile with an order for the river to overflow, he was the first to loosen the soil for sowing with a hoe, cut the first sheaf at the harvest festival, at the end of the field work he brought a grateful sacrifice to the goddess Renenutet.

Afterlife Views.

The Egyptians considered the afterlife to be a direct continuation of the earthly one. According to them, a person consisted of a body (het), a soul (ba), a shadow (haybet), a name (ren) and an invisible double (ka). The most ancient was the idea of ​​ka, which was born with a person, relentlessly followed him everywhere, constituted an integral part of his being and personality, but did not disappear with his death and could continue life in the grave, depending on the degree of preservation of the body. It was this last conviction that formed the basis of all burial rites: in order to protect the body from decay and preserve ka, it was turned into a mummy by means of embalming and was hidden in the closed room of the tomb; next to it, statues of the deceased were installed, in which the ka could move in case of an unforeseen destruction of the mummy; terrible spells were supposed to protect her from snakes and scorpions. Believing that ka could die of hunger and thirst, or leave the grave and take revenge on the living, relatives filled the tomb with provisions, carved images of food and clothing on its walls, brought funeral gifts and sacrifices, and pronounced magical spells-requests for the gift of everything necessary to the deceased. The bliss of the deceased also depended on the preservation of his name (ren) in the memory of descendants, therefore he was carved on the walls of the tomb; erasing the name was considered a great sacrilege. The soul (ba) was represented in the form of a bird or a grasshopper; she was not associated with a burial existence and could freely leave a dead body, soar into heaven and live there among the gods. Later, the belief in the ba’s wanderings on earth and in the underworld was born; to protect her from all kinds of underground monsters, there were special prayers and spells. As for the shadow (highbet), there are very few mentions of it.

In Egypt, there was no single idea of ​​the afterlife. According to the most common Abydos version, the kingdom of the dead is the kingdom of Osiris, where a person goes after death to be reborn to life. There, among the fertile fields on which huge cereals grow, he serves Osiris, as he served Pharaoh on earth. To facilitate his work, many figures of workers were placed in the tomb, starting from the time of the Middle Kingdom, which, thanks to the spells written on them, could replace the deceased. This kingdom was in the “fields of Earu”, which the Egyptians placed either in unexplored lands (undeveloped areas of the Nile Valley, Phenicia), or in heaven (northeastern heavenly land). To get into it, one had to either cross the river of the dead on the ferry of the gods, or fly up into the sky as a bird, or go through a crack in the western mountains.

According to the Memphis version, the kingdom of the dead – the land of sleep and darkness ruled by the god Sokar – was a huge grotto or quarry located in the depths of the Libyan desert. The solar Heliopolis tradition considered the boat Ra to be the best place for the dead, in which they can avoid dangers and enjoy complete bliss, even during her nightly travels through the underworld (duat), separated from the Nile Valley by high mountains.

In the era of the New Kingdom, an attempt is made to systematize the doctrine of the kingdom of the dead, combining the Abydos and Heliopolis traditions on the basis of the theology of Amun-Ra. Its authors reject the idea of ​​the soul being on earth and identify the afterlife with the underworld. It consists of twelve areas-rooms, the gates of which are guarded by gigantic snakes; each of them is ruled by one of the ancient funerary gods (Sokar, Osiris, etc.). The supreme ruler of the entire kingdom is Amon-Ra, who sails through the duat every night on his boat and thus brings great consolation to its inhabitants.

Since ancient times, the Egyptians believed that the deceased could achieve everything with the help of magic (get into the kingdom of the dead, get rid of hunger and thirst), i.e. his fate does not depend in any way on his earthly existence. But later, the idea of ​​an afterlife judgment arises (chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead): in the face of Osiris, seated on the throne, Horus and his assistant Anubis weigh the heart of the deceased on scales balanced by truth (the image of the goddess of justice Maat), and Thoth writes the result on the boards; the righteous is rewarded with a happy life in the fields of Earu, and the sinner is devoured by the monster Amt (a lion with the head of a crocodile). Only those who on earth were submissive and patient were recognized as righteous, “who did not steal, did not encroach on the temple property, did not rebel, did not speak evil against the king.”

Funeral Ceremony.

began with mummification. The insides of the deceased were taken out and placed in special vessels (canopes), which were transferred under the protection of the gods. Instead of a heart, a stone scarab beetle was put in. The body was rubbed with soda and asphalt, swaddled in canvases and placed in a stone or wooden coffin (sometimes in two coffins), which was covered with magical images and inscriptions. Then, accompanied by relatives, friends, priests and mourners, he was transported to the western bank of the Nile, where the necropolis was usually located. The main ceremony took place at the front of the tomb or at its entrance. There the mystery of Osiris was played out, during which the priests performed the rite of cleansing a mummy or statue of the deceased; they killed two bulls, whose thighs and hearts they presented as a gift to the deceased. This was followed by the ceremony of opening the mouth and eyes; thus, the deceased received the opportunity to use the gifts brought to him. Then the coffin was taken to the inner room of the tomb; the entrance to it was walled up. In the front part, a feast was held, in which, it was believed, the deceased himself participated.

Language And Writing.

The language of the ancient Egyptians belonged to the Semitic-Hamitic language family. In its development, it went through several stages: Ancient Egyptian (the period of the Old Kingdom), Middle Egyptian (classical), New Egyptian (16th – 8th centuries BC), demotic (8th BC – 5th century AD). ) and the Coptic language (3rd–7th centuries AD). It was spoken by the indigenous population of the Nile Valley, and practically did not spread beyond its borders.

Writing originated at the end of the 4th millennium BC, and possibly already in the Herzee period. Her early birth is associated with economic needs and government office work, with an urgent need to account for all the material resources of society. It finally took shape by the time of the Middle Kingdom. Its original form was a drawing letter (pictography), which was then transformed into hieroglyphic, which was the result of the simplification of the drawing signs and the loss of their direct connection with the depicted. Hieroglyphic writing (“sacred carving”) included verbal signs (ideograms) indicating objects or concepts; phonetic signs that convey syllables, combinations of sounds (usually two or three), and exclusively consonants, or (much less often) individual sounds; 3) stylized drawings explaining the meaning of words and concepts (determinatives). The total number of hieroglyphs reached three thousand; most common in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. there were about seven hundred. Hieroglyphic images covered the entire living and objective world of the ancient Egyptians: the main parts of the universe (sky, earth, water), men and women, parts of the human body, domestic and wild animals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, plants, buildings, ships and their items, furniture and household utensils, clothing and ornaments, weapons, tools, writing utensils, musical instruments, etc. Hieroglyphic writing was deciphered in 1822 by the French Egyptologist J.-F. Champollion (1790-1832).

The hieroglyphs were read from right to left. They were applied on a stone surface (carved or, less often, painted with paints), on wooden boards and sometimes on leather scrolls, as well as from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. on the papyrus. Papyrus was made from the fibrous plant of the same name of the Nile backwaters, the stems of which were cut along, laid in rows edge to edge, spread across the first layer and pressed them; the layers were glued together with the sap of the plant itself. Papyrus was very expensive; it was used sparingly, often the old inscription was erased and a new one was applied over it (palimpsest). They wrote on it with a stick made from the stem of a calamus (marsh plant) with a split end; the ink was organic; the main text was drawn in black, and the beginning of a line and sometimes a phrase in red. the words were not separated from each other.

The Egyptians were passionate lovers of writing. They covered with hieroglyphs the inner and outer walls of tombs and temples, obelisks, steles, statues, images of gods, sarcophagi, vessels, and even writing instruments and staves. The scribe’s craft was highly cynical; special schools existed for their preparation.

The laborious hieroglyphic writing already in the era of the Old Kingdom could not satisfy the growing economic and cultural needs of society. This contributed to the simplification of signs and the appearance of schematic hieroglyphs. A new type of writing arose – hieroglyphic cursive (first book, and then business), which was called hieratic (“priestly”), although not only sacred, but also most secular texts were written with it. During the Middle Kingdom, classical hieroglyphic writing was used only for inscriptions on stone, while the hieratic monopolized the papyri. The process of further reduction and simplification of signs resulted in the 8th century. BC. to the birth, on the basis of business cursive writing, demotic (“folk”) writing intended for everyday use: several characters merge into one; they finally lose their picturesque character; more than twenty simple signs appear, denoting individual consonants – the embryo of the alphabet; nevertheless, hieroglyphs remain an important part of demotic writing. Pharaohs of the XVI dynasty made an attempt to revive the old hieroglyphic writing. However, with the decline of the ancient Egyptian religious cult and the disappearance of the priestly caste, it was forgotten by the beginning of our era. In the 2-3 centuries. AD in Egypt, an alphabetic type of writing was formed – Coptic. The Coptic alphabet consisted of twenty-four letters of the classical Greek alphabet and seven letters of the demotic alphabet.

Literature.

Most of the monuments of Egyptian literature have been lost, since the papyrus, on which literary texts were usually applied, was a very short-lived material.

Egyptian literature was characterized by a strict permutation of genres. It reflected the essential features of the Egyptian mentality – the idea of ​​the absolute power of the gods and the pharaoh, the dependence and defenselessness of man in front of them, the connection of earthly life with the afterlife. She has always experienced a strong influence of religion, but she was never limited to theology and developed a wide variety of genres. The enrichment of its symbolic and figurative system was facilitated by the use of hieroglyphic writing and its connection with theatrical cult performances. There was practically no concept of authorship in it, with the exception of didactic literature, which was the most respected genre.

Written Egyptian literature originated in the 4th millennium BC. She carried a strong folklore basis (labor songs, parables, sayings, fairy tales). The earliest surviving monuments date back to the period of the Old Kingdom. Among them are the Pyramid Texts, the oldest collection of magic formulas and sayings in history, whose roots go back to the pre-dynastic era; they are imbued with mortals’ longing for immortality. A biographical genre emerges: first, these are gravestone inscriptions designed to perpetuate the name of the deceased and initially containing a simple listing of his titles, positions and sacrificial gifts, gradually (by the time of the 5th-6th dynasties) turn into real life stories. During the III-V dynasties, didactic literature was born, represented by the genre of teachings (TheTeaching of Ptahotep, preserved in the manuscript of the Middle Kingdom period). A cycle of tales about Pharaoh Khufu and sorcerers is associated with the epoch of the IV-V dynasties. The surviving routine of the Memphis temple performance speaks of the existence of a proto-dramatic genre. The most significant monument of religious poetry of this era is the hymn in honor of the goddess of the sky Nut.

The heyday of Egyptian literature falls on the period of the Middle Kingdom. The didactic genre is widely spread: The Teachings of the Heracleopolis king to his son Merikar, dating back to the First Transitional Period, and the Teachings of Amenemkhet I (XII Dynasty) are real political treatises on the art of government. Instructions of a social and professional nature are also being written (Akhtoyteaching ‘son the superiority of the scribe’s profession over all others). The genre of political prophecy(TheemergesProphecy of Neferti). The poeticbelong to the political and journalistic literature Speeches of Ipuser (an accusatory appeal to the pharaoh about the calamities of Egypt). The autobiographical genre culminates in Sinuhet’s Tale , a highly artistic life story of a nobleman of the early 12th dynasty. In the field of fabulous literature, a new type of fairy tales about overseas travel is being created (The Tale of a Shipwrecked). A household story is born (The Story of an Eloquent Peasant). A genre of philosophical dialogue appears – the Conversation of the Disappointed with his Soul, where the topic of doubts about the benefits of the afterlife is heard: a person, says the Soul, should enjoy every moment of his earthly existence. This motive is expressed even more vividly in the Song of the Harper, the most outstanding poetic work of that time. Among the finest examples of religious poetry are the hymns to the Nile god Happi and Osiris. The genre of magic spells is represented by the Texts of the sarcophagi.

The literature of the New Kingdom continues the artistic traditions of the Middle. Fairy tales appear in large numbers, especially during the XIX-XX dynasties (The Tale of Two Brothers, the Tale of Truth and Krivda, the Tale of the Doomed Prince, the Tale of the Theban king Sekenenra and the Hyksos king Apepi), everyday instructions (Amenemope’s Teaching, Ani’s Teaching) , vocabulary in honor of the kings, the new capital, etc. Love lyrics and religious poetry with its masterpiece, the hymn to Aton, reaches a high level. Historiography (Annals of Thutmose III) and epic poetry (Song of the Battle of Kadeshborn) are. All magic spells known from previous eras are collected in the famous Book of the Dead, a kind of guide to the afterlife.

From the Late Kingdom, fantastic tales (a fairy tale cycle about the priest Hasmuas), instructions (have been preservedAnkhsheshonk’s Instruction), an epic poem about Pharaoh Petubast; religious literature is represented by the Book of Sighs (a list of conspiracies with the help of which Isis revived Osiris), the Book of the passage of eternity, the Book of the overthrow of and the ApophisComplaining Songs of Isis and Nephthys (for the mysteries). During this period, different types of historical prose developed: political chronicle (Stele of Pianhi, Chronicle of Osorkon, Demotic Chronicle), family chronicle (The Tale of Peteis III), travel reports (Journey of Unuamon to the Bible). A genre of fables is born, where exclusively animal characters act.

The science.

Astronomy.

The Egyptians have been making astronomical observations for a long time. They grouped the stars into twelve zodiac constellations, giving them the names of those animals whose outlines resembled their outlines (cat, jackal, snake, scarab, donkey, lion, goat, cow, falcon, baboon, ibis, crocodile); divided the entire celestial equator into thirty-six parts, compiled tables of the positions of the stars at every hour of the night for fifteen-day periods. The Egyptians were the first in history to create a solar calendar. The beginning of the year was considered the day of the first appearance of the star Sothis, or Sirius (the first day of the month of Thoth), which, according to the Egyptians, was the cause of the flooding of the Nile. The Egyptians counted the year in three hundred and sixty-five days and divided it into three seasons (flood, sowing, harvest) of four months each (that, faofi, atyr, hoyak – tibi, mehir, famenot, farmuti – pakhon, paini, epiphy, mesori ); a month consisted of three decades of ten days. A “minor year” of five additional days was added to the last month. The day was divided into twenty-four hours, the duration of which was not constant – it depended on the season: short daytime and long night hours in winter and long daytime and short night hours in summer. The chronology was carried out according to the years of the reign of each pharaoh.

Maths.

The early birth of mathematics was associated with the need to carefully measure the level of water rise in the Nile and take into account the resources available. Its development was largely due to progress in monumental construction (pyramids, temples).

The counting system was basically decimal. The Egyptians knew fractions, but only those with one in the numerator. Division was replaced by successive subtraction, and multiplied only by 2. They knew how to raise to a power and extract the square root. In geometry, they were able to relatively accurately determine the area of ​​a circle (as a square 8/9 of its diameter), but they measured any quadrangles and triangles as rectangles.

Medicine.

The Egyptian art of healing was especially famous in the Eastern Mediterranean and had a great influence on Greek and Arab medicine. Egyptian doctors attributed diseases to somatic causes and only associated epidemic diseases with the will of the gods. Symptoms, as a rule, were taken by them for the diseases themselves, and therapy was aimed at combating individual symptoms; only in rare cases was the diagnosis made on the basis of a combination of symptoms. The main means of determining the disease were examination, palpation and listening. Egyptian medicine was distinguished by a significant degree of specialization. She achieved particular success in gynecology and ophthalmology. Dentistry was also well developed, as evidenced by the good condition of the teeth of the mummies and the presence of gold plates on the damaged teeth. Surgical art was also at a high level, as the discovered surgical instruments and the surviving treatise on surgery show. Thanks to mummification, doctors had a fairly deep anatomical knowledge. They developed the doctrine of blood circulation and the heart as its main center. Cosmetics and pharmacology were integral parts of medicine; medicines were made mainly in special laboratories at temples; most of them were emetics and laxatives. All these advances, however, did not prevent doctors from resorting to magic and spells.

Geography And Ethnography.

Existing in the confined space of the Nile Valley, the Egyptians were poorly aware of the world around them, although they were able to draw up excellent topographic plans of the area familiar to them. They had the most fantastic ideas about countries outside Orontes and the 4th Nile threshold. The universe seemed to them to be a flat earth with the sky resting on it on four supports (world mountains); the underworld was located underground, the world ocean stretched around it, and Egypt was in its center. All land was divided into two great river systems: the Mediterranean with the Nile and the Eritrean with the Euphrates, and the water element – into three seas: Green (modern Red), Black (salt lakes of the Suez Isthmus) and Okruzhnoe (Mediterranean). The Nile flowed from two huge holes at Elephantine. The Egyptians believed that humanity consists of four races: red (Egyptians, or “people”), yellow (Asians), white (Libyans) and black (Negroes); later they included the Hittites and Mycenaean Greeks in this system.

Art.

Art in Ancient Egypt was closely associated with a religious cult and therefore had a special sacred meaning. The artist’s work was considered a sacred rite. All forms of art were subject to strict canons that did not allow freedom of creativity. Any artistic form sought to express the harmonious unity of the cosmic and earthly, the divine world and the human world.

Architecture.

Architecture was the leading area of ​​Egyptian art. Time has not spared most of the monuments of Egyptian architecture; mainly religious buildings – tombs and temples – have survived to us.

The earliest form of the tomb, the mastaba (stone bench), was a massive rectangular structure with walls inclined towards the center; in the underground part (depth from fifteen to thirty meters) there was a burial chamber with a mummy, in the above-ground part there were several cult rooms, including (on the eastern side) a chapel, and halls for visits; there were also statues of the deceased; the walls were covered with reliefs and paintings that had informative (glorification of the deceased) or magical (ensuring his afterlife existence) meaning. During the 1st-2nd dynasties, the mastabs served as the resting place of both the pharaohs and the nobility, during the 3rd-6th dynasties – only the nobility.

Mastaba became the structural basis for a new form of royal burial that appeared during the 3rd dynasty – the pyramid. The pyramid expressed a new concept of the king as a god towering over all other people. The task of creating a grandiose royal burial was solved by increasing it vertically. The pyramid was built of stone blocks tightly fitted to each other and was oriented to the cardinal points; the entrance to it is in the northern part; burial and discharge chambers were located inside (for uniform pressure distribution). The first type of pyramid was the step pyramid – the pyramid of Djoser in Sakkara, 60 m high, erected by the architect Imhotep. It consisted of six mastabas, stacked on top of each other, decreasing upward. During the 4th dynasty, builders began to fill in the voids between the steps, resulting in the formation of a classic type of pyramid – a sloping pyramid. The first pyramid of this type was the Sneferu pyramid in Dashur (over 100 m). Its successors are the highest stone structures in the history of mankind – the pyramids of Khufu (146.5 m) and Khafra (143 m) in Giza. The royal pyramid was the center of a vast burial architectural ensemble surrounded by a wall: it included a memorial temple, small pyramids of queens, mastabas of courtiers and nomarchs. At V – VI, the size of the pyramids decreased significantly (no higher than 70 m).

In the initial period of the Middle Kingdom (XI Dynasty), a new form of royal burial arose – a rock tomb, located under a covered columnar hall, in front of which there was a memorial temple (tomb of the Mentuhoteps). However, the pharaohs of the XII dynasties resumed the construction of the pyramids. They were of medium size (the pyramid of Senusret I reached 61 m) and did not differ in great strength due to the new method of masonry: its basis was eight stone walls diverging from the center to the corners and middle of each side of the pyramid; eight more walls extended from these walls at an angle of 45 degrees; the space between the walls was covered with sand and rubble.

In the New Kingdom, the tradition of burying kings in secret rock tombs in the Valley of the Kings near Thebes prevailed again. For greater safety, they were carved, as a rule, in remote mountainous areas. From the time of the XVIII dynasty, the tomb began to be separated from the funeral temple (the idea of ​​the architect Ineni).

The dominant form of temple architecture in the era of the Old Kingdom was the funeral temple, which was an integral part of the burial complex. It adjoined the pyramid from the east and was a rectangle with a flat roof made of massive limestone blocks. In the center of it there was a hall with four-sided monolithic pillars and two narrow rooms for the tsar’s statues for the dead; the hall passed into an open courtyard, behind which were chapels (a temple at the Khafre pyramid). During the 5th-6th dynasties, the importance of the temple in the burial ensemble increases; its size is increasing; architectural decoration becomes more complicated; for the first time, palm-shaped columns and columns in the form of bundles of unblown papyri are used; the walls are covered with colored reliefs. Later, another type of column appears – in the form of a bundle of lotus buds. During the 5th Dynasty, a new form of the temple appeared – a solar temple: its main element is a colossal stone obelisk, the top of which is covered with copper (the fossilized ray of Ra); he stands on a dais; in front of them is a huge altar.

During the 11th Dynasty, the funeral temple became the central element of the funeral ensemble; it consists of two terraces, framed by porticoes and crowned with a pyramid, the base of which is a natural rock (the tomb of the Mentuhoteps). Under the XII dynasty, despite the resumption of the construction of the monumental pyramids, it nevertheless retains its importance within (the burial complex of Amenemkhet III). The temple finally turns into the center of the nationwide cult of the pharaoh. It is distinguished by its impressive size, a large number of rooms, and an abundance of sculptures and reliefs. In temple construction, a colonnade with a new column shape (decorated with capitals with embossed heads of the goddess Hathor) and a pylon (a gate in the form of two towers with a narrow passage) began to be widely used. There is a custom to erect colossal statues or obelisks with copper-faced tops in front of the temple.

During the XVIII dynasty, the classical type of the terrestrial Egyptian temple was established (Karnak and Luxor temples in Thebes). In plan, it is an elongated rectangle oriented from east to west; its façade faces the Nile, from which a road framed by sphinxes (avenue of sphinxes) leads to it. The entrance to the temple is made in the form of a pylon, in front of which there are two obelisks and colossal statues of the pharaoh. Behind the pylon there is an open courtyard surrounded by a colonnade (peristyle), which abuts against another smaller pylon leading to the second courtyard, which is completely covered with columns and statues of the pharaoh (hypostyle). The hypostyle is directly adjacent to the main building of the temple, which consists of one or more columned halls, a sanctuary with statues of gods and ancillary rooms (treasury, library, storerooms). The multiple transitions from one architectural space to another (the Karnak ensemble is more than 1 km long) carries the idea of ​​a slow gradual approach of the believer to the deity. Since the Egyptian temple was not a complete whole and existed as a set of separate parts, it could be “continued” without breaking the harmony, supplemented with new structures. In contrast to the varied interior decoration, in its external expression it demonstrated the simplicity of lines that corresponded to the monotonous landscape; it was disturbed only by wall painting and light colors.

Over time, the funeral royal temples turned into independent monumental structures with massive pylons and avenues of sphinxes (the temple of Amenhotep III with two huge statues of the pharaoh – the so-called colossi of Memnon). The memorial temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahri (architect Senmut), which continues the architectural traditions of the XI dynasty, stands apart. It consists of three terraces with halls carved into the rocks, the facades of which are framed by colonnades; the terraces are connected by ramps.

Significant changes in temple construction took place during the reign of Akhenaten. Architects reject monumentality and columned halls; colonnades are used only for the construction of pavilions in front of the pylons. However, the 19th dynasty returns to pre-Ehnatonian architectural traditions; the desire for grandeur reaches its apogee – giant pylons, columns and statues of kings, excessive decor of the interior (the temple of Amun in Karnak, the temples of Ramses II in Tanis). The type of rock-cut temple is widespread; the most famous is the funeral temple of Ramses II in Abu Simbel (Ramesseum), cut into the rock 55 m deep: the facade of the temple is designed in the form of the front wall of a huge pylon approx. 30 m and a width of approx. 40 m; in front of him are four seated gigantic statues of the pharaoh over 20 m in height; the organization of the internal space reproduces the order of the arrangement of the premises of a classical ground temple.

The last monuments of monumental temple construction in the era of the New Kingdom are the temple of the god Khonsu in Karnak, erected under Ramses III, and the grandiose funeral temple of this pharaoh in Medinet Abu, united with the royal palace into a single complex. In the subsequent period, such construction is abandoned. Its final splash occurs only in the Sais era (the temple of the goddess Neith in Sais with palm-shaped colonnades and colossal statues of the pharaohs).

Very little is known about the secular architecture of Ancient Egypt. Palace architecture can only be judged by the royal residence of Akhenaten in Akhetaton; palaces from previous periods have not survived. Akhenaten’s palace was oriented from north to south and consisted of two parts, connected by a covered walkway – official (for receptions and ceremonies) and private (living quarters). The main entrance was on the north side and led into a large courtyard, around the perimeter of which there were statues and which rested against the facade of the palace; in the center of the facade there was a pavilion with columns, and on the sides there were ramps. The front columned hall of the palace was adjoined by recreation rooms, courtyards and gardens with ponds.

The house of a noble Egyptian, as a rule, was located in the middle of a walled area with two entrances – the main one and the service one. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, it was distinguished by its significant size (60 ґ 40 m) and could number up to seventy rooms grouped around a central hall with four columns (a settlement in Kakhun). During the period of the New Kingdom, judging by the excavations in Akhetaton, the house of a noble person was of a more modest size (22 ґ 22 m). It was divided into the right front (hall and reception rooms) and the left living part (bedroom with washbasin, rooms for women, storerooms). All rooms had windows just below the ceiling, so the main hall was built higher than the rest of the rooms. The walls and floors were covered with paintings. Around the house there were courtyards, a well, outbuildings, a garden with a pond and gazebos. The house of a commoner in the Middle and New Kingdoms was a small structure that included a common room, bedroom and kitchen; a small courtyard adjoined it. The building materials were reed, wood, clay or mud brick.

Sculpture.

The plastic art of Ancient Egypt was inseparable from architecture; sculpture was an organic part of tombs, temples and palaces. The works of Egyptian sculptors attest to a high degree of technical skill; their work required a lot of effort – they carved, carefully finished and polished statues from the hardest types of stone (granite, porphyry, etc.). At the same time, they fairly reliably conveyed the forms of the human body; they were less successful in drawing muscles and tendons. The main object of the sculptors’ creativity was an earthly ruler or nobleman, less often a commoner. The image of the deity was not central; usually the gods were depicted rather schematically, often with the heads of birds or animals.

Already in the period of the Old Kingdom, the canonical types of statues of dignitaries were formed: 1) standing (the figure is straightened tensely, frontal, the head is raised high, the left leg takes a step forward, the arms are lowered and pressed to the body); 2) sitting on a throne (hands are symmetrically placed on the knees or one arm is bent at the elbow) or sitting on the ground with crossed legs. All of them give the impression of solemn monumentality and strict serenity; they are characterized by stiffness of posture, impassive facial expression, strong and strong muscles (statue of the nobleman Ranofer); before us is a generalized social type that embodies power and power. To a particular extent, these features are inherent in huge statues of pharaohs with an exaggeratedly powerful torso and stately dispassionateness of poses (statues of Djoser, Khafr); in its maximum expression, the idea of ​​divine royal power is presented in giant stone sphinxes – lions with the head of a pharaoh (the first royal statues outside the temples). At the same time, the connection between the sculptural image and the funeral cult required its resemblance to the original, which led to the early appearance of a sculptural portrait conveying the individual originality of the model and its character (statues of the architect Khemiun, scribe Kai, prince Kaaper, bust of prince Anhaf). Thus, in Egyptian sculpture, the cold arrogance of appearance and solemn posture were combined with a realistic rendering of the face and body; it carried the idea of ​​a person’s social purpose and, at the same time, the idea of ​​his individual existence. Sculpture of small forms turned out to be less canonical, since its object could be representatives of the lower strata (figurines of servants and slaves in the process of work).

In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Theban school occupied the leading positions in plastic art. If at first it follows the principles of schematization and idealization (the statue of Senusret I from Lisht), then the realistic direction is strengthened in it: the royal statue, glorifying the power of the pharaoh, must at the same time consolidate its specific appearance in the minds of the people. To this end, the sculptors use new techniques – the contrast between the stillness of the pose and the lively expressiveness of a carefully worked out face (eyes deeply seated in the orbits, traced facial muscles and skin folds) and a sharp play of chiaroscuro (statues of Senusret III and Amenemhat III). Genre scenes are popular in wooden folk sculpture: a plowman with bulls, a boat with rowers, a detachment of soldiers; they are distinguished by spontaneity and truthfulness.

In the early period of the New Kingdom, there is a departure from the plastic innovations of the previous era: with maximum idealization, only the most general portrait resemblance is preserved (statues of Queen Hatshepsut and Thutmose III; there is a custom to reproduce the features of the ruling pharaoh in sculptural images of the nobility. But, starting with the reign of Thutmose IV, sculptors they abandon the canonical austerity of forms in favor of exquisite decorativeness: the formerly smooth surface of the statue is now covered with thin flowing lines of clothing and curls of wigs and is enlivened by the play of light and shade. realism is characteristic mainly of statues of private persons (a statue of a married couple of the time of Amenhotep III, a male head from the Birmingham Museum) .This trend reaches its culmination under Akhenaten, when there is a complete break with the canon; idealization is even abandoned when depicting the king and queen. The sculptors set themselves the task of conveying the inner world of the character (the portrait heads of Akhenaten and Nefertiti), as well as achieving a realistic image of the human body (figurines of four goddesses from the tomb of Tutankhamun).

During the period of anti-Ehnatonic reaction, an attempt is made to return to the old anti-realist methods. The tendency towards idealization, characteristic primarily of the Memphis school (statues from Per-Ramses), again becomes the leading one. However, in the plastic art of the 19th-20th dynasties, the realistic direction also does not give up its positions, which is manifested primarily in the royal portrait: there is no longer hyperbolized muscles, an unnaturally straight pose, a frozen gaze directed into the distance; Pharaoh appears in the form of a strong, but ordinary warrior, not in ceremonial, but in everyday attire. The secular image of the king is affirmed – not a god, but a real earthly ruler (statue of Ramses II).

In the initial period of the Late Kingdom, plastic art was in decline. In the XI-IX centuries. BC. monumental sculpture gives way to small forms (small bronze figurines). At the end of the 9th – beginning of the 8th centuries. BC. a realistic sculptural portrait is revived (statuettes of Taharka, Kushite princesses, a statue of the Theban mayor Montuemkhet). In the Sa’is and Persian eras, the realistic direction rivals a resurgent traditionalist tendency.

Relief Art And Painting.

Relief was an important component of ancient Egyptian art. By the time of the Old Kingdom, two main types of Egyptian relief had developed – an ordinary bas-relief and an in-depth (incised) relief (the surface of the stone, which served as the background, remained intact, and the contours of the image were cut). At the same time, a strict system of arranging scenes and entire compositions on the walls of tombs was established. The reliefs of the royal tombs performed three tasks: to glorify the pharaoh as an earthly ruler (scenes of war and hunting), to emphasize his divine status (the pharaoh surrounded by the gods) and to provide him with a blissful existence in the afterlife (various food, dishes, clothes, weapons, etc.) … The reliefs in the tombs of the nobility were divided into two categories: some praised the merits and deeds of the deceased in the service of the pharaoh, others depicted everything necessary for another life.

Even in the era of the Early Kingdom, the basic principles of the relief image (Narmer’s plate) were formed: 1) the belt arrangement of the scenes (one above the other); 2) general planar character; 3) conventionality and schematicity, partly due to the belief in the magical nature of the image: the transfer of social status through the size of the figure (the figure of the pharaoh is superior to all the others, the figures of the nobles are slightly smaller, ordinary people are almost pygmies), a combination of different perspectives (the head and legs of a person are given in profile , and the eyes, shoulders and arms are turned face-to-face), showing an object by schematically fixing its individual parts (a hoof instead of a horse, a ram’s head instead of a ram itself), assigning certain poses to certain categories of people (enemies are invariably depicted as defeated, etc.) ); 4) maximum portrait likeness of the main character; 5) the opposition of the main character to the rest of the participants in the scene, with whom he contrasts with his calmness and immobility; however, he always remains out of action. The reliefs were painted without gradation of shades, the figures were outlined with contours.

These pictorial principles were also used in wall painting, which in the era of the Old Kingdom was closely associated with relief art. It was during this period that two main types of mural painting techniques spread: with tempera on a dry surface and an inlay of colored pastes into pre-made recesses. Only mineral paints were used.

During the period of the Middle Kingdom, two directions were determined – the metropolitan, which focuses on strict reproduction of the previous samples (the tombs of the pharaohs and courtiers), and the provincial, which tries to overcome a number of canons and seeks new artistic techniques (the tombs of the nomarchs in Beni Hasan); the latter is characterized by more natural poses of the characters, the rejection of disproportion in the depiction of the main and secondary participants in the scenes, greater realism in showing commoners and animals, richness of color, bold juxtaposition of light spots. However, with the decline in the independence of the nomes during the 12th dynasty, this tendency gradually faded away.

In the era of the New Kingdom, relief and wall painting separated from each other, becoming independent types of fine art. The importance of wall painting is increasing. The murals are executed on smooth white plaster that covered the limestone walls, and are distinguished by stylistic and plot diversity (Theban wall painting); reliefs are carved much less often and only in those rock tombs that are cut from high-quality limestone. There is a book painting close to graphics (illustrations for the Book of the Dead).

During the 18th Dynasty, the art of relief and painting underwent changes both in subject matter and in visual terms (the Theban school). New themes appear (various war scenes, feast scenes); Attempts are made to convey the movement and volume of figures, to show them from the back, in full face or full profile; group compositions acquire three-dimensionality; the coloring becomes more natural. The culmination of this evolution is the era of Akhenaten and Tutankhamun, when the rejection of the previous canons allows artists to interpret hitherto forbidden topics (the king in everyday life – at dinner, with his family), pay more attention to the environment (gardens, palaces, temples), transfer figures to free and dynamic poses without conditional frontal shoulder turn.

Under the last pharaohs of the XVIII and in the era of the XIX dynasty, plot and compositional diversity, interest in the landscape, the desire for portrait accuracy and careful modeling of the body were preserved. At the same time, there is a return to the traditional principles of composition, idealization of images, disproportion of figured images, especially in temple reliefs of cult content. After Ramses III, this tendency wins out completely; in Theban art, the realistic trend is dying; religious themes suppress secular ones.

Clothing and food.

Since ancient times, the main clothing of men has been an apron, a loincloth or a short skirt. Fabrics and sizes varied depending on social status: for commoners and slaves, it was a simple piece of leather or paper material that fitted the thighs, for noble ones, an oblong piece of fabric tightly wrapped around the waist and upper leg and fastened with a belt. Gradually, the apron and skirt lengthened, it became fashionable to put on another longer and wider apron or skirt, sometimes made of transparent fabric. Noble men also covered the upper part of the body. At first, a narrow cloak was used for this, which was thrown over the shoulders, or a trimmed tiger (leopard) skin that protected the back; it was passed under the arms and tied with belts on the shoulders. In the era of the New Kingdom, a dress made of expensive fabric, such as a shirt or a cape, spread.

Unlike men, women had to cover their bodies. Their oldest clothing was a woven dress that fitted the body from chest to feet and held on straps, sometimes with short and narrow sleeves; over time, they began to decorate it with multi-colored patterns. Later, noble women began to throw thin transparent bedspreads over them. The costume of a noble Egyptian woman in the epoch of the XVIII – XX dynasties consisted of a wide shirt, a short skirt and a large cloak with rounded edges.

The custom of covering the head and wearing shoes only spread in Egypt by the time of the New Kingdom. Both men and women wore shoes and sandals made of leather or narrow strips of papyrus; sandals were attached to the leg with straps. Shoes were worn only when leaving the house. The traditional men’s headdress was a round, tight-fitting hat made of leather or paper fabric, sometimes of leaves and stems. Pharaohs and dignitaries preferred a kind of cap with long “ears” and with a “scythe” twisted into a bun at the back. Women threw a large scarf over their heads, gathered in folds and covering their hair like a cover.

In the early period, men wore short hair and women long and lush hair. Later, it became customary for men to shave their hair and beards, and this fashion spread among noble women. At the same time, aristocrats began to use false beards and wigs, usually curled.

The main food was barley cakes, emmer porridge, fish (primarily dried) and vegetables, the main drink was barley beer. The diet of the noble also included meat, fruits and grape wine. There were no forks. During the meal, they did not use knives: the food was served on trays, already cut into pieces, which were taken with the fingers of the right hand. Liquid food was eaten with spoons; they drank from glasses and cups. The main part of the kitchen utensils consisted of a variety of vessels, ladles and jugs. The tables were originally a round or rectangular plank on a low base; real dining tables and chairs came later.

Egyptology.

Until the end of the 18th century. they were practically not interested in the history of Ancient Egypt. The country was under Turkish rule and remained inaccessible to Europeans; in addition, knowledge of ancient Egyptian writing was lost. The situation changed thanks to the campaign of Napoleon I in Egypt in 1798-1801, in which a group of French scientists participated in the collection and cataloging of Egyptian antiquities. The result of their work was the multivolume Description of Egypt (1809-1828). The Rosetta stone, which they brought to Europe, with the text inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek letters, allowed J.-F.Champollon (1790–1832) to find in 1822 a method for decoding hieroglyphic writing; he compiled the first grammar and the first dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language. The discovery of J.-F. Champollion marked the birth of Egyptology.

At the first stage of the development of Egyptology (until the early 1880s), excavations were mostly unorganized; Due to the lack of qualifications of many archaeologists-adventurers, irreparable damage was caused to a number of valuable monuments. At the same time, systematic archaeological research began, primarily by scientists from Germany and France. An important role in this was played by the Frenchman OF Mariette (1821–1881), who carried out excavations in Thebes, Abydos and Memphis; in 1858 he founded the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The deciphering of hieroglyphic writing was also completed (R. Lepsius and G. Brugsch), a huge work was carried out to collect, systematize and publish the discovered inscriptions and material materials. The German school founded by R. Lepsius began to study ancient Egyptian history and chronology.

At the second stage (early 1880s – 1920s), archaeological research was carried out on a rigorous scientific basis and under the control of the Egyptian State Antiquities Service in Cairo. The English scientist W.M. Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) developed a method for determining the relative age of objects and used it fruitfully during excavations in Negada, Abydos, Memphis and El-Amarna. The work of the French expeditions was coordinated by the Institute of Oriental Archeology, founded in 1881. Since the beginning of the twentieth century. The European archaeologists were joined by their colleagues from the United States, whose activities were overseen by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and the Universities of Chicago and California.

During this period, great success was achieved in the field of scientific publication of monuments of ancient Egyptian writing and archaeological materials (General Catalog of Egyptian Antiquities of the Cairo Museum, Monuments of Ancient Egypt, Primary Sources of Egyptian Antiquities). The development of a wide variety of aspects of ancient Egyptian history began. Particular interest was shown in the military and political past of Egypt, its religion and culture. The first generalizing works appeared – the History of Egypt from the earliest times of W.M. Flinders Petrie, the History of Egypt by the American J.J. Brasted (1865–1935), During the time of the Pharaohs and the Kings and Gods of Egypt A. Moret (1868–1938). The concept of the leading role of Egyptian civilization in the ancient world was established; its main adherents were the Frenchman G. Maspero (1846-1916), the author of the Ancient History of the peoples of the classical East (1895-1899), and the German E. Meyer (1855-1930), the author of the History of Antiquity (1884-1910).

At the third stage (1920s – 1950s), archaeologists turned to a serious study of the pre-dynastic and early dynastic periods. The most sensational event was the opening in 1922 by the Englishman H. Carter (1873–1939) of the tomb of Tutankhamun. The problem was posed of the origin of Egyptian civilization and its relationship with neighboring cultures (Nubian, Libyan, Syrian and Palestinian). Philologists have made significant progress: German scientists A. Erman and H. Grapov compiled a new dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language, the English Egyptologist A.H. Gardiner published a grammar of the classical Egyptian language. The active publication of texts continued: the Vilbour Papyri, Administrative documents of the Ramessid era, Egyptian onomastics , etc. Most scholars rejected the idea of ​​the dominance of Egypt in the Ancient East (Cambridge ancient history). In the 1940s, the Egyptian school of Egyptologists emerged (A. Kamal, S. Hasan, Z. Goneim, A. Bakir).

Since the 1960s (the fourth stage) and especially in recent decades, the range of problems and methodological tools of Egyptology have expanded significantly. While maintaining the traditional interest in political history, culture and religion, they often began to be viewed from a new angle. The problem of correlation between political ideology and political practice (E. Hornung) was posed, the Egyptian concept of monarchy was rethought (E. Spalinger). A semiotic approach began to be applied in the study of various aspects of the ancient Egyptian mentality: ideas about time (E. Otto), war and peace (I. Hafeman and I. Foos), the image of the alien (G. Kees). Considerable attention began to be paid to the study of historical consciousness (E. Otto, M. Werner, I. von Beckerat). The interest in economic and social structures (V. Helk, B. Kemp), to the ties of Egypt with the early Greek civilization (W. Helk), with African cultures (J. Leclan) and Judea (A. Malamat), to the previously poorly studied period XI –VIII centuries. BC. (K. Kitchen).